Parental Autonomy and the Obligation Not to Harm One's Child Genetically

Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 5-15

  Green, Ronald M ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; FEMALE; FREEDOM; GENETIC COUNSELING; GENETIC DISORDER; GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION; HEALTH; HUMAN; MEDICAL ETHICS; MEDICAL GENETICS; MORALITY; PARENT; PERSONAL AUTONOMY; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS;

GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION;

ETHICS, MEDICAL; EUGENICS; FEMALE; FREEDOM; GENETIC COUNSELING; GENETIC DISEASES, INBORN; HEALTH; HUMANS; MORAL OBLIGATIONS; PARENTS; PERSONAL AUTONOMY; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS;

EID: 0031082307     PISSN: 10731105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-720X.1997.tb01389.x     Document Type: Article

References (72)

1. A.L. Caplan, If I Were a Rich Man, Could I Buy a Pancreas? (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992): at 131.
2. L.B. Andrews, "Legal Aspects of Genetic Information," Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 64 (1991): at 36-39.
3. G.J. Annas and S. Elias, "Maternal Serum AFP: Educating Physicians and the Public," American Journal of Public Health, 75 (1985): 1374-75; R. Steinbrook, "In California, Voluntary Mass Prenatal Screening," Hastings Center Report, 16, no. 5 (1986): 5-7; and L.B. Andrews et al., Institute of Medicine, Assessing Genetic Risk: Implications for Health and Social Policy (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994): at 276-77.
4. G.J. Annas and S. Elias, "Maternal Serum AFP: Educating Physicians and the Public," American Journal of Public Health, 75 (1985): 1374-75; R. Steinbrook, "In California, Voluntary Mass Prenatal Screening," Hastings Center Report, 16, no. 5 (1986): 5-7; and L.B. Andrews et al., Institute of Medicine, Assessing Genetic Risk: Implications for Health and Social Policy (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994): at 276-77.
5. G.J. Annas and S. Elias, "Maternal Serum AFP: Educating Physicians and the Public," American Journal of Public Health, 75 (1985): 1374-75; R. Steinbrook, "In California, Voluntary Mass Prenatal Screening," Hastings Center Report, 16, no. 5 (1986): 5-7; and L.B. Andrews et al., Institute of Medicine, Assessing Genetic Risk: Implications for Health and Social Policy (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994): at 276-77.
6. C. Strong, "Tomorrow's Prenatal Testing: Should We Test for 'Minor' Diseases?," Archives of Family Medicine, 2 (1993): 1187-93; A. Clarke et al., "The Genetic Testing of Children: Report of the Working Party of the Clinical Genetics Society (UK)," Journal of Medical Genetics, 31 (1994): 785-97; D.C. Wertz, J.H. Fanos, and P.R. Reilly, "Genetic Testing for Children and Adolescents: Who Decides?," JAMA, 272 (1994): 875- 81; D.E. Hoffmann and E. Wulfsberg, "Testing Children for Genetic Predispositions: Is It in Their Best Interest?," Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 23 (1995): 331-44; and American Society of Human Genetics Board of Directors, American College of Medical Genetics Board of Directors, "ASHG/ACMG Report: Points to Consider: Ethical, Legal, and Psychosocial Implications of Genetic Testing in Children and Adolescents," American Journal of Human Genetics, 57 (1993): 1233-41.
7. C. Strong, "Tomorrow's Prenatal Testing: Should We Test for 'Minor' Diseases?," Archives of Family Medicine, 2 (1993): 1187-93; A. Clarke et al., "The Genetic Testing of Children: Report of the Working Party of the Clinical Genetics Society (UK)," Journal of Medical Genetics, 31 (1994): 785-97; D.C. Wertz, J.H. Fanos, and P.R. Reilly, "Genetic Testing for Children and Adolescents: Who Decides?," JAMA, 272 (1994): 875- 81; D.E. Hoffmann and E. Wulfsberg, "Testing Children for Genetic Predispositions: Is It in Their Best Interest?," Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 23 (1995): 331-44; and American Society of Human Genetics Board of Directors, American College of Medical Genetics Board of Directors, "ASHG/ACMG Report: Points to Consider: Ethical, Legal, and Psychosocial Implications of Genetic Testing in Children and Adolescents," American Journal of Human Genetics, 57 (1993): 1233-41.
8. C. Strong, "Tomorrow's Prenatal Testing: Should We Test for 'Minor' Diseases?," Archives of Family Medicine, 2 (1993): 1187-93; A. Clarke et al., "The Genetic Testing of Children: Report of the Working Party of the Clinical Genetics Society (UK)," Journal of Medical Genetics, 31 (1994): 785-97; D.C. Wertz, J.H. Fanos, and P.R. Reilly, "Genetic Testing for Children and Adolescents: Who Decides?," JAMA, 272 (1994): 875-81; D.E. Hoffmann and E. Wulfsberg, "Testing Children for Genetic Predispositions: Is It in Their Best Interest?," Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 23 (1995): 331-44; and American Society of Human Genetics Board of Directors, American College of Medical Genetics Board of Directors, "ASHG/ACMG Report: Points to Consider: Ethical, Legal, and Psychosocial Implications of Genetic Testing in Children and Adolescents," American Journal of Human Genetics, 57 (1993): 1233-41.
9. C. Strong, "Tomorrow's Prenatal Testing: Should We Test for 'Minor' Diseases?," Archives of Family Medicine, 2 (1993): 1187-93; A. Clarke et al., "The Genetic Testing of Children: Report of the Working Party of the Clinical Genetics Society (UK)," Journal of Medical Genetics, 31 (1994): 785-97; D.C. Wertz, J.H. Fanos, and P.R. Reilly, "Genetic Testing for Children and Adolescents: Who Decides?," JAMA, 272 (1994): 875- 81; D.E. Hoffmann and E. Wulfsberg, "Testing Children for Genetic Predispositions: Is It in Their Best Interest?," Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 23 (1995): 331-44; and American Society of Human Genetics Board of Directors, American College of Medical Genetics Board of Directors, "ASHG/ACMG Report: Points to Consider: Ethical, Legal, and Psychosocial Implications of Genetic Testing in Children and Adolescents," American Journal of Human Genetics, 57 (1993): 1233-41.
10. C. Strong, "Tomorrow's Prenatal Testing: Should We Test for 'Minor' Diseases?," Archives of Family Medicine, 2 (1993): 1187-93; A. Clarke et al., "The Genetic Testing of Children: Report of the Working Party of the Clinical Genetics Society (UK)," Journal of Medical Genetics, 31 (1994): 785-97; D.C. Wertz, J.H. Fanos, and P.R. Reilly, "Genetic Testing for Children and Adolescents: Who Decides?," JAMA, 272 (1994): 875- 81; D.E. Hoffmann and E. Wulfsberg, "Testing Children for Genetic Predispositions: Is It in Their Best Interest?," Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 23 (1995): 331-44; and American Society of Human Genetics Board of Directors, American College of Medical Genetics Board of Directors, "ASHG/ACMG Report: Points to Consider: Ethical, Legal, and Psychosocial Implications of Genetic Testing in Children and Adolescents," American Journal of Human Genetics, 57 (1993): 1233-41.
11. See Strong, supra note 4; P. Kitcher, The Lives to Come: The Genetic Revolution and Human Possibilities (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996): 204-19; and J.R. Botkin, "Fetal Privacy and Confidentiality," Hastings Center Report, 25, no. 5 (1995): 32-39.
12. See Strong, supra note 4; P. Kitcher, The Lives to Come: The Genetic Revolution and Human Possibilities (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996): 204-19; and J.R. Botkin, "Fetal Privacy and Confidentiality," Hastings Center Report, 25, no. 5 (1995): 32-39.
13. See Strong, supra note 4; P. Kitcher, The Lives to Come: The Genetic Revolution and Human Possibilities (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996): 204-19; and J.R. Botkin, "Fetal Privacy and Confidentiality," Hastings Center Report, 25, no. 5 (1995): 32-39.
14. W.E. Nance, "Parables," in D.M. Bartels, B.S. LeRoy, and A.L. Caplan, eds., Prescribing our Future: Ethical Challenges in Genetic Counseling (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1993): 89-94.
15. See id. at 92; and P. Coucke et al., "Linkage of Autosomal Dominant Hearing Loss to the Short Arm of Chromosome 1 in Two Families," N. Engl. J. Med., 331 (1994): 425-31.
16. See id. at 92; and P. Coucke et al., "Linkage of Autosomal Dominant Hearing Loss to the Short Arm of Chromosome 1 in Two Families," N. Engl. J. Med., 331 (1994): 425-31.
17. R. Shiang et al., "Mutations in the Transmembrane Domain of FGFR3 Cause the Most Common Genetic Form of Dwarfism, Achondroplasia," Cell, 78 (1994): 335-42.
18. T.E. Kelly, Clinical Genetics and Genetic Counseling (Chicago: Book Medical Publishers, 2nd ed., 1986): at 292-93.
19. Radio interview with J.J. Wasmuth, National Public Radio, "All Things Considered" (Feb. 7, 1995).
20. S.B. Twiss, "Parental Responsibility for Genetic Health," Hastings Center Report, 4, no. 2 (1974): 9-11; S.B. Twiss, "Ethical Issues in Genetic Screening: Models of Genetic Responsibility," in D. Bergsma et al., eds., Ethical, Social and Legal Dimensions of Screening for Human Genetic Disease (New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book, 1974): 225-61; L.M. Purdy, "Genetic Diseases: Can Having Children Be Immoral?," in J.J. Buckley, ed., Genetics Now: Ethical Issues in Genetic Research (Washington D.C.: University Press of America, 1978): 25-39; M. Shaw, "Conditional Prospective Rights of the Fetus," Journal of Legal Medicine, 5 (1984): 63-116; A. Czeizel, The Right to be Born Healthy: Ethical Problems of Genetic Counseling in Hungary (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1988); B. Steinbock and R. McClamrock, "When is Birth Unfair to the Child?," Hastings Center Report, 24, no. 6 (1994): 15-21; and C.B. Cohen, "'Give Me Children or I Shall Die!': New Reproductive Technologies and Harm to Children," Hastings Center Report, 26, no. 2 (1996): 19-27.
21. S.B. Twiss, "Parental Responsibility for Genetic Health," Hastings Center Report, 4, no. 2 (1974): 9-11; S.B. Twiss, "Ethical Issues in Genetic Screening: Models of Genetic Responsibility," in D. Bergsma et al., eds., Ethical, Social and Legal Dimensions of Screening for Human Genetic Disease (New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book, 1974): 225-61; L.M. Purdy, "Genetic Diseases: Can Having Children Be Immoral?," in J.J. Buckley, ed., Genetics Now: Ethical Issues in Genetic Research (Washington D.C.: University Press of America, 1978): 25-39; M. Shaw, "Conditional Prospective Rights of the Fetus," Journal of Legal Medicine, 5 (1984): 63-116; A. Czeizel, The Right to be Born Healthy: Ethical Problems of Genetic Counseling in Hungary (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1988); B. Steinbock and R. McClamrock, "When is Birth Unfair to the Child?," Hastings Center Report, 24, no. 6 (1994): 15-21; and C.B. Cohen, "'Give Me Children or I Shall Die!': New Reproductive Technologies and Harm to Children," Hastings Center Report, 26, no. 2 (1996): 19-27.
22. S.B. Twiss, "Parental Responsibility for Genetic Health," Hastings Center Report, 4, no. 2 (1974): 9-11; S.B. Twiss, "Ethical Issues in Genetic Screening: Models of Genetic Responsibility," in D. Bergsma et al., eds., Ethical, Social and Legal Dimensions of Screening for Human Genetic Disease (New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book, 1974): 225-61; L.M. Purdy, "Genetic Diseases: Can Having Children Be Immoral?," in J.J. Buckley, ed., Genetics Now: Ethical Issues in Genetic Research (Washington D.C.: University Press of America, 1978): 25-39; M. Shaw, "Conditional Prospective Rights of the Fetus," Journal of Legal Medicine, 5 (1984): 63-116; A. Czeizel, The Right to be Born Healthy: Ethical Problems of Genetic Counseling in Hungary (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1988); B. Steinbock and R. McClamrock, "When is Birth Unfair to the Child?," Hastings Center Report, 24, no. 6 (1994): 15-21; and C.B. Cohen, "'Give Me Children or I Shall Die!': New Reproductive Technologies and Harm to Children," Hastings Center Report, 26, no. 2 (1996): 19-27.
23. S.B. Twiss, "Parental Responsibility for Genetic Health," Hastings Center Report, 4, no. 2 (1974): 9-11; S.B. Twiss, "Ethical Issues in Genetic Screening: Models of Genetic Responsibility," in D. Bergsma et al., eds., Ethical, Social and Legal Dimensions of Screening for Human Genetic Disease (New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book, 1974): 225-61; L.M. Purdy, "Genetic Diseases: Can Having Children Be Immoral?," in J.J. Buckley, ed., Genetics Now: Ethical Issues in Genetic Research (Washington D.C.: University Press of America, 1978): 25-39; M. Shaw, "Conditional Prospective Rights of the Fetus," Journal of Legal Medicine, 5 (1984): 63-116; A. Czeizel, The Right to be Born Healthy: Ethical Problems of Genetic Counseling in Hungary (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1988); B. Steinbock and R. McClamrock, "When is Birth Unfair to the Child?," Hastings Center Report, 24, no. 6 (1994): 15-21; and C.B. Cohen, "'Give Me Children or I Shall Die!': New Reproductive Technologies and Harm to Children," Hastings Center Report, 26, no. 2 (1996): 19-27.
24. S.B. Twiss, "Parental Responsibility for Genetic Health," Hastings Center Report, 4, no. 2 (1974): 9-11; S.B. Twiss, "Ethical Issues in Genetic Screening: Models of Genetic Responsibility," in D. Bergsma et al., eds., Ethical, Social and Legal Dimensions of Screening for Human Genetic Disease (New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book, 1974): 225-61; L.M. Purdy, "Genetic Diseases: Can Having Children Be Immoral?," in J.J. Buckley, ed., Genetics Now: Ethical Issues in Genetic Research (Washington D.C.: University Press of America, 1978): 25-39; M. Shaw, "Conditional Prospective Rights of the Fetus," Journal of Legal Medicine, 5 (1984): 63-116; A. Czeizel, The Right to be Born Healthy: Ethical Problems of Genetic Counseling in Hungary (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1988); B. Steinbock and R. McClamrock, "When is Birth Unfair to the Child?," Hastings Center Report, 24, no. 6 (1994): 15-21; and C.B. Cohen, "'Give Me Children or I Shall Die!': New Reproductive Technologies and Harm to Children," Hastings Center Report, 26, no. 2 (1996): 19-27.
25. S.B. Twiss, "Parental Responsibility for Genetic Health," Hastings Center Report, 4, no. 2 (1974): 9-11; S.B. Twiss, "Ethical Issues in Genetic Screening: Models of Genetic Responsibility," in D. Bergsma et al., eds., Ethical, Social and Legal Dimensions of Screening for Human Genetic Disease (New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book, 1974): 225-61; L.M. Purdy, "Genetic Diseases: Can Having Children Be Immoral?," in J.J. Buckley, ed., Genetics Now: Ethical Issues in Genetic Research (Washington D.C.: University Press of America, 1978): 25-39; M. Shaw, "Conditional Prospective Rights of the Fetus," Journal of Legal Medicine, 5 (1984): 63-116; A. Czeizel, The Right to be Born Healthy: Ethical Problems of Genetic Counseling in Hungary (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1988); B. Steinbock and R. McClamrock, "When is Birth Unfair to the Child?," Hastings Center Report, 24, no. 6 (1994): 15-21; and C.B. Cohen, "'Give Me Children or I Shall Die!': New Reproductive Technologies and Harm to Children," Hastings Center Report, 26, no. 2 (1996): 19-27.
26. S.B. Twiss, "Parental Responsibility for Genetic Health," Hastings Center Report, 4, no. 2 (1974): 9-11; S.B. Twiss, "Ethical Issues in Genetic Screening: Models of Genetic Responsibility," in D. Bergsma et al., eds., Ethical, Social and Legal Dimensions of Screening for Human Genetic Disease (New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book, 1974): 225-61; L.M. Purdy, "Genetic Diseases: Can Having Children Be Immoral?," in J.J. Buckley, ed., Genetics Now: Ethical Issues in Genetic Research (Washington D.C.: University Press of America, 1978): 25-39; M. Shaw, "Conditional Prospective Rights of the Fetus," Journal of Legal Medicine, 5 (1984): 63-116; A. Czeizel, The Right to be Born Healthy: Ethical Problems of Genetic Counseling in Hungary (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1988); B. Steinbock and R. McClamrock, "When is Birth Unfair to the Child?," Hastings Center Report, 24, no. 6 (1994): 15-21; and C.B. Cohen, "'Give Me Children or I Shall Die!': New Reproductive Technologies and Harm to Children," Hastings Center Report, 26, no. 2 (1996): 19-27.
27. J.A. Robertson, Children of Choice (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994): ch. 2.
28. See Botkin, supra note 5, at 33. Jeffrey Botkin argues that some parental requests for genetic information about their embryo or fetus can inflict psychological harms on the future child or can limit the child's freedom. Although Dr. Botkin's position is similar in form to the one I offer here, my argument focuses on the need to avoid clear physical harms to the child. I do not agree that the putative psychological or other harms he lists justify limiting parental autonomy.
29. G. Levinson et al., "Recent Advances in Reproductive Genetic Technologies," Bio/Technology, 13 (1995): 968-73.
30. D. Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and D. Heyd, Genethics: Moral Issues in the Creation of People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Related treatments of this issue include M.A. Warren, "Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?," Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 7 (1977): 275-89; R.I. Sikora and B. Barry, Obligations to Future Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); G. Kavka, "The Paradox of Future Individuals," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 11 (1982): 93-112; J. Woodward, "The Non- identity Problem," Ethics, 96 (1986): 804-31; M. Hanser, "Harming Future People," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19 (1990): 47-70; R. Faden, "Reproductive Genetic Testing and the Ethics of Parenting," Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 8, Supp. 1 (1993): 142-47; Steinbock and McClamrock, supra note 11; D. Brock, "The Non-identity Problem and Genetic Harms - The Case of Wrongful Handicaps," Bioethics, 9 (1995): 269- 75; and J.C. Heller, Human Genome Research & The Challenge of Contingent Future Persons (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1966).
31. D. Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and D. Heyd, Genethics: Moral Issues in the Creation of People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Related treatments of this issue include M.A. Warren, "Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?," Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 7 (1977): 275-89; R.I. Sikora and B. Barry, Obligations to Future Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); G. Kavka, "The Paradox of Future Individuals," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 11 (1982): 93-112; J. Woodward, "The Non- identity Problem," Ethics, 96 (1986): 804-31; M. Hanser, "Harming Future People," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19 (1990): 47-70; R. Faden, "Reproductive Genetic Testing and the Ethics of Parenting," Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 8, Supp. 1 (1993): 142-47; Steinbock and McClamrock, supra note 11; D. Brock, "The Non-identity Problem and Genetic Harms - The Case of Wrongful Handicaps," Bioethics, 9 (1995): 269- 75; and J.C. Heller, Human Genome Research & The Challenge of Contingent Future Persons (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1966).
32. D. Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and D. Heyd, Genethics: Moral Issues in the Creation of People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Related treatments of this issue include M.A. Warren, "Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?," Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 7 (1977): 275-89; R.I. Sikora and B. Barry, Obligations to Future Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); G. Kavka, "The Paradox of Future Individuals," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 11 (1982): 93-112; J. Woodward, "The Non- identity Problem," Ethics, 96 (1986): 804-31; M. Hanser, "Harming Future People," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19 (1990): 47-70; R. Faden, "Reproductive Genetic Testing and the Ethics of Parenting," Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 8, Supp. 1 (1993): 142-47; Steinbock and McClamrock, supra note 11; D. Brock, "The Non-identity Problem and Genetic Harms - The Case of Wrongful Handicaps," Bioethics, 9 (1995): 269- 75; and J.C. Heller, Human Genome Research & The Challenge of Contingent Future Persons (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1966).
33. D. Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and D. Heyd, Genethics: Moral Issues in the Creation of People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Related treatments of this issue include M.A. Warren, "Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?," Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 7 (1977): 275-89; R.I. Sikora and B. Barry, Obligations to Future Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); G. Kavka, "The Paradox of Future Individuals," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 11 (1982): 93-112; J. Woodward, "The Non- identity Problem," Ethics, 96 (1986): 804-31; M. Hanser, "Harming Future People," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19 (1990): 47-70; R. Faden, "Reproductive Genetic Testing and the Ethics of Parenting," Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 8, Supp. 1 (1993): 142-47; Steinbock and McClamrock, supra note 11; D. Brock, "The Non-identity Problem and Genetic Harms - The Case of Wrongful Handicaps," Bioethics, 9 (1995): 269- 75; and J.C. Heller, Human Genome Research & The Challenge of Contingent Future Persons (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1966).
34. D. Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and D. Heyd, Genethics: Moral Issues in the Creation of People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Related treatments of this issue include M.A. Warren, "Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?," Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 7 (1977): 275-89; R.I. Sikora and B. Barry, Obligations to Future Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); G. Kavka, "The Paradox of Future Individuals," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 11 (1982): 93-112; J. Woodward, "The Non- identity Problem," Ethics, 96 (1986): 804-31; M. Hanser, "Harming Future People," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19 (1990): 47-70; R. Faden, "Reproductive Genetic Testing and the Ethics of Parenting," Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 8, Supp. 1 (1993): 142-47; Steinbock and McClamrock, supra note 11; D. Brock, "The Non-identity Problem and Genetic Harms - The Case of Wrongful Handicaps," Bioethics, 9 (1995): 269- 75; and J.C. Heller, Human Genome Research & The Challenge of Contingent Future Persons (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1966).
35. D. Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and D. Heyd, Genethics: Moral Issues in the Creation of People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Related treatments of this issue include M.A. Warren, "Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?," Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 7 (1977): 275-89; R.I. Sikora and B. Barry, Obligations to Future Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); G. Kavka, "The Paradox of Future Individuals," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 11 (1982): 93-112; J. Woodward, "The Non-identity Problem," Ethics, 96 (1986): 804-31; M. Hanser, "Harming Future People," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19 (1990): 47-70; R. Faden, "Reproductive Genetic Testing and the Ethics of Parenting," Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 8, Supp. 1 (1993): 142-47; Steinbock and McClamrock, supra note 11; D. Brock, "The Non-identity Problem and Genetic Harms - The Case of Wrongful Handicaps," Bioethics, 9 (1995): 269- 75; and J.C. Heller, Human Genome Research & The Challenge of Contingent Future Persons (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1966).
36. D. Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and D. Heyd, Genethics: Moral Issues in the Creation of People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Related treatments of this issue include M.A. Warren, "Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?," Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 7 (1977): 275-89; R.I. Sikora and B. Barry, Obligations to Future Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); G. Kavka, "The Paradox of Future Individuals," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 11 (1982): 93-112; J. Woodward, "The Non- identity Problem," Ethics, 96 (1986): 804-31; M. Hanser, "Harming Future People," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19 (1990): 47-70; R. Faden, "Reproductive Genetic Testing and the Ethics of Parenting," Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 8, Supp. 1 (1993): 142-47; Steinbock and McClamrock, supra note 11; D. Brock, "The Non-identity Problem and Genetic Harms - The Case of Wrongful Handicaps," Bioethics, 9 (1995): 269- 75; and J.C. Heller, Human Genome Research & The Challenge of Contingent Future Persons (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1966).
37. D. Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and D. Heyd, Genethics: Moral Issues in the Creation of People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Related treatments of this issue include M.A. Warren, "Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?," Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 7 (1977): 275-89; R.I. Sikora and B. Barry, Obligations to Future Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); G. Kavka, "The Paradox of Future Individuals," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 11 (1982): 93-112; J. Woodward, "The Non- identity Problem," Ethics, 96 (1986): 804-31; M. Hanser, "Harming Future People," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19 (1990): 47-70; R. Faden, "Reproductive Genetic Testing and the Ethics of Parenting," Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 8, Supp. 1 (1993): 142-47; Steinbock and McClamrock, supra note 11; D. Brock, "The Non-identity Problem and Genetic Harms - The Case of Wrongful Handicaps," Bioethics, 9 (1995): 269- 75; and J.C. Heller, Human Genome Research & The Challenge of Contingent Future Persons (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1966).
38. D. Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and D. Heyd, Genethics: Moral Issues in the Creation of People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Related treatments of this issue include M.A. Warren, "Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?," Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 7 (1977): 275-89; R.I. Sikora and B. Barry, Obligations to Future Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); G. Kavka, "The Paradox of Future Individuals," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 11 (1982): 93-112; J. Woodward, "The Non- identity Problem," Ethics, 96 (1986): 804-31; M. Hanser, "Harming Future People," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19 (1990): 47-70; R. Faden, "Reproductive Genetic Testing and the Ethics of Parenting," Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 8, Supp. 1 (1993): 142-47; Steinbock and McClamrock, supra note 11; D. Brock, "The Non-identity Problem and Genetic Harms - The Case of Wrongful Handicaps," Bioethics, 9 (1995): 269- 75; and J.C. Heller, Human Genome Research & The Challenge of Contingent Future Persons (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1966).
39. D. Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and D. Heyd, Genethics: Moral Issues in the Creation of People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Related treatments of this issue include M.A. Warren, "Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?," Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 7 (1977): 275-89; R.I. Sikora and B. Barry, Obligations to Future Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); G. Kavka, "The Paradox of Future Individuals," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 11 (1982): 93-112; J. Woodward, "The Non- identity Problem," Ethics, 96 (1986): 804-31; M. Hanser, "Harming Future People," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19 (1990): 47-70; R. Faden, "Reproductive Genetic Testing and the Ethics of Parenting," Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 8, Supp. 1 (1993): 142-47; Steinbock and McClamrock, supra note 11; D. Brock, "The Non-identity Problem and Genetic Harms -The Case of Wrongful Handicaps," Bioethics, 9 (1995): 269-75; and J.C. Heller, Human Genome Research & The Challenge of Contingent Future Persons (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1966).
40. D. Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and D. Heyd, Genethics: Moral Issues in the Creation of People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Related treatments of this issue include M.A. Warren, "Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?," Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 7 (1977): 275-89; R.I. Sikora and B. Barry, Obligations to Future Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); G. Kavka, "The Paradox of Future Individuals," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 11 (1982): 93-112; J. Woodward, "The Non- identity Problem," Ethics, 96 (1986): 804-31; M. Hanser, "Harming Future People," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19 (1990): 47-70; R. Faden, "Reproductive Genetic Testing and the Ethics of Parenting," Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 8, Supp. 1 (1993): 142-47; Steinbock and McClamrock, supra note 11; D. Brock, "The Non-identity Problem and Genetic Harms - The Case of Wrongful Handicaps," Bioethics, 9 (1995): 269- 75; and J.C. Heller, Human Genome Research & The Challenge of Contingent Future Persons (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1966).
41. N.S. Jecker, "The Ascription of Rights in Wrongful Life Suits," Law and Philosophy, 6 (1987): 149-65; P.G. Peters Jr., "Rethinking Wrongful Life: Bridging the Boundary Between Tort and Family Law," Tulane Law Review, 67 (1992): 397-454; and M.B. Kelly, "The Rightful Position in 'Wrongful Life' Actions," Hasting Law Journal, 42 (1991): 505-89.
42. N.S. Jecker, "The Ascription of Rights in Wrongful Life Suits," Law and Philosophy, 6 (1987): 149-65; P.G. Peters Jr., "Rethinking Wrongful Life: Bridging the Boundary Between Tort and Family Law," Tulane Law Review, 67 (1992): 397-454; and M.B. Kelly, "The Rightful Position in 'Wrongful Life' Actions," Hasting Law Journal, 42 (1991): 505-89.
43. N.S. Jecker, "The Ascription of Rights in Wrongful Life Suits," Law and Philosophy, 6 (1987): 149-65; P.G. Peters Jr., "Rethinking Wrongful Life: Bridging the Boundary Between Tort and Family Law," Tulane Law Review, 67 (1992): 397-454; and M.B. Kelly, "The Rightful Position in 'Wrongful Life' Actions," Hasting Law Journal, 42 (1991): 505-89.
44. See Kelly, supra note 16, at 537.
45. See id. at 525.
46. R.M. Green, B. Gert, and K.D. Clouser, "The Method of Public Morality versus the Method of Principalism," Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 18 (1993): 479-91.
47. S. Callahan, "An Ethical Analysis of Responsible Parenthood," in A.M. Capron et al., eds., Genetic Counseling: Facts, Values and Norms (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1979): 217-38.
48. J.P. Kahn, "Genetic Harm: Bitten by the Body that Keeps You?," Bioethics, 5 (1991): 289-308.
49. See Heyd, supra note 15, at 44-45.
50. J. Feinberg, "The Child's Right to an Open Future," in W. Aiken and H. LaFollette, eds., Children's Rights, Parental Authority, and State Power (Totowa: Rowman and Littlefield, 1980): 124-53.
51. See Twiss, "Parental Responsibility for Genetic Health," supra note 11, at 9.
52. J.D. Arras, "Having Children in Fear and Trembling," Milbank Quarterly, 68 (1990): 53-82; W.R. Cohen, "Maternal- Fetal Conflict, I," in A. Goldworth et al., eds., Ethics and Perinatology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995): 10- 28; P.H. Jos, M.F. Marshall, and M. Perlmutter, "The Charleston Policy on Cocaine Use During Pregnancy: A Cautionary Tale," Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 23 (1995): 120-28; and R. Macklin, "Maternal-Fetal Conflict, II," in Goldworth et al., eds., id. at 29-46.
53. J.D. Arras, "Having Children in Fear and Trembling," Milbank Quarterly, 68 (1990): 53-82; W.R. Cohen, "Maternal-Fetal Conflict, I," in A. Goldworth et al., eds., Ethics and Perinatology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995): 10-28; P.H. Jos, M.F. Marshall, and M. Perlmutter, "The Charleston Policy on Cocaine Use During Pregnancy: A Cautionary Tale," Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 23 (1995): 120-28; and R. Macklin, "Maternal-Fetal Conflict, II," in Goldworth et al., eds., id. at 29-46.
54. J.D. Arras, "Having Children in Fear and Trembling," Milbank Quarterly, 68 (1990): 53-82; W.R. Cohen, "Maternal- Fetal Conflict, I," in A. Goldworth et al., eds., Ethics and Perinatology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995): 10- 28; P.H. Jos, M.F. Marshall, and M. Perlmutter, "The Charleston Policy on Cocaine Use During Pregnancy: A Cautionary Tale," Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 23 (1995): 120-28; and R. Macklin, "Maternal-Fetal Conflict, II," in Goldworth et al., eds., id. at 29-46.
55. J.D. Arras, "Having Children in Fear and Trembling," Milbank Quarterly, 68 (1990): 53-82; W.R. Cohen, "Maternal- Fetal Conflict, I," in A. Goldworth et al., eds., Ethics and Perinatology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995): 10- 28; P.H. Jos, M.F. Marshall, and M. Perlmutter, "The Charleston Policy on Cocaine Use During Pregnancy: A Cautionary Tale," Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 23 (1995): 120-28; and R. Macklin, "Maternal-Fetal Conflict, II," in Goldworth et al., eds., id. at 29-46.
56. I.K. Jordan, "Ethical Issues in the Genetic Study of Deafness," in R.J. Ruben, T.R. Van De Water, and K.P. Steel, eds., "Genetics of Hearing Impairment," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 630 (1991): 236-39.
57. K.S. Arnos, J. Israel, and M. Cunningham, "Genetic Counseling of the Deaf: Medical and Cultural Considerations," in Ruben, Van De Water, and Steel, eds., supra note 26, at 212-22; J.B. Christiansen, "Sociological Implications of Hearing Loss," in Ruben, Van De Water, and Steel, eds., supra note 26, at 230-35; E. Dolnick, "Deafness as a Culture," Atlantic Monthly, 272 (1993): 37-53; and A. Solomon, "Defiantly Deaf," New York Times Magazine, Aug. 24, 1994, at 38-45, 62-68.
58. K.S. Arnos, J. Israel, and M. Cunningham, "Genetic Counseling of the Deaf: Medical and Cultural Considerations," in Ruben, Van De Water, and Steel, eds., supra note 26, at 212- 22; J.B. Christiansen, "Sociological Implications of Hearing Loss," in Ruben, Van De Water, and Steel, eds., supra note 26, at 230-35; E. Dolnick, "Deafness as a Culture," Atlantic Monthly, 272 (1993): 37-53; and A. Solomon, "Defiantly Deaf," New York Times Magazine, Aug. 24, 1994, at 38-45, 62-68.
59. K.S. Arnos, J. Israel, and M. Cunningham, "Genetic Counseling of the Deaf: Medical and Cultural Considerations," in Ruben, Van De Water, and Steel, eds., supra note 26, at 212- 22; J.B. Christiansen, "Sociological Implications of Hearing Loss," in Ruben, Van De Water, and Steel, eds., supra note 26, at 230-35; E. Dolnick, "Deafness as a Culture," Atlantic Monthly, 272 (1993): 37-53; and A. Solomon, "Defiantly Deaf," New York Times Magazine, Aug. 24, 1994, at 38-45, 62-68.
60. K.S. Arnos, J. Israel, and M. Cunningham, "Genetic Counseling of the Deaf: Medical and Cultural Considerations," in Ruben, Van De Water, and Steel, eds., supra note 26, at 212- 22; J.B. Christiansen, "Sociological Implications of Hearing Loss," in Ruben, Van De Water, and Steel, eds., supra note 26, at 230-35; E. Dolnick, "Deafness as a Culture," Atlantic Monthly, 272 (1993): 37-53; and A. Solomon, "Defiantly Deaf," New York Times Magazine, Aug. 24, 1994, at 38-45, 62-68.
61. See Kelly, supra note 9.
62. L. Sawisch, "A Different Approach," in S. Ball, ed., Strategies in Genetic Counseling: The Challenge of the Future (New York: Human Sciences Press, vol. 1, 1988): 96-108; A. Lippman, "Prenatal Genetic Testing and Screening: Constructing Needs and Reinforcing Inequities," American Journal of Law & Medicine, XXVII (1991): 15-50; A. Asch, "The Human Genome and Disability Rights," Disability Rag & Resource, Jan./Feb. (1994): 12-15; and M. Saxton, "Commentary on 'Society's Diseases,'" Hastings Center Report, 26, no. 3 (1996): 22.
63. L. Sawisch, "A Different Approach," in S. Ball, ed., Strategies in Genetic Counseling: The Challenge of the Future (New York: Human Sciences Press, vol. 1, 1988): 96-108; A. Lippman, "Prenatal Genetic Testing and Screening: Constructing Needs and Reinforcing Inequities," American Journal of Law & Medicine, XXVII (1991): 15-50; A. Asch, "The Human Genome and Disability Rights," Disability Rag & Resource, Jan./Feb. (1994): 12-15; and M. Saxton, "Commentary on 'Society's Diseases,'" Hastings Center Report, 26, no. 3 (1996): 22.
64. L. Sawisch, "A Different Approach," in S. Ball, ed., Strategies in Genetic Counseling: The Challenge of the Future (New York: Human Sciences Press, vol. 1, 1988): 96-108; A. Lippman, "Prenatal Genetic Testing and Screening: Constructing Needs and Reinforcing Inequities," American Journal of Law & Medicine, XXVII (1991): 15-50; A. Asch, "The Human Genome and Disability Rights," Disability Rag & Resource, Jan./Feb. (1994): 12-15; and M. Saxton, "Commentary on 'Society's Diseases,'" Hastings Center Report, 26, no. 3 (1996): 22.
65. L. Sawisch, "A Different Approach," in S. Ball, ed., Strategies in Genetic Counseling: The Challenge of the Future (New York: Human Sciences Press, vol. 1, 1988): 96-108; A. Lippman, "Prenatal Genetic Testing and Screening: Constructing Needs and Reinforcing Inequities," American Journal of Law & Medicine, XXVII (1991): 15-50; A. Asch, "The Human Genome and Disability Rights," Disability Rag & Resource, Jan./Feb. (1994): 12-15; and M. Saxton, "Commentary on 'Society's Diseases,'" Hastings Center Report, 26, no. 3 (1996): 22.
66. D.C. Wertz, "Ethical and Legal Implications of the New Genetics: Issues for Discussion," Social Science and Medicine, 35 (1992): 495-505.
67. See Kitcher, supra note 5, at 236-37.
68. A.C. Motulsky and J. Murray, "Will Prenatal Diagnosis with Selective Abortion Affect Society's Attitude Toward the Handicapped?," in K. Berg, ed., Research Ethics (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1983): 277-91.
69. D.C. Wertz and J.C. Fletcher, "A Critique of Some Feminist Challenges to Prenatal Diagnosis," Journal of Women's Health, 2 (1993): 173-88.
70. See supra note 11.
71. A.L. Caplan, "Neutrality is Not Morality: The Ethics of Genetic Counseling," in Bartels, LeRoy, and Caplan, eds., supra note 6, at 158.
72. See Robertson, supra note 12.