Biology of neurological recovery and functional restoration after spinal cord injury

Neurosurgery

Volumn 42, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 696-708

  Tator, Charles H ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY HEALTH NETWORK   (Canada)

^b TORONTO WESTERN HOSPITAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

Recovery; Regeneration; Spinal cord injury

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOPYRIDINE; 6 NITRO 7 SULFAMOYLBENZO[F]QUINOXALINE 2,3 DIONE; ALPHA AMINO 3 HYDROXY 5 METHYL 4 ISOXAZOLEPROPIONIC ACID; CILIARY NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; GACYCLIDINE; GANGLIOSIDE GM1; GLUTAMATE RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; GLUTAMIC ACID; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; NERVE GROWTH FACTOR; NEUROMODULIN; NEUROTROPHIN 3; SCLEROPROTEIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ASTROCYTE; CELL PROLIFERATION; DECOMPRESSION SURGERY; ELECTROSTIMULATION THERAPY; EPENDYMA CELL; HUMAN; NERVE REGENERATION; NERVE ROOT; NERVE TRANSPLANTATION; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SCHWANN CELL; SPINAL CORD INJURY;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; NERVE REGENERATION; NERVOUS SYSTEM; SPINAL CORD; SPINAL CORD DISEASES; SPINAL CORD INJURIES; SPINAL NERVE ROOTS;

EID: 0031970232     PISSN: 0148396X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00006123-199804000-00007     Document Type: Review

References (109)

1. Agrawal SK, Fehlings MG: Role of NMDA and non-NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors in traumatic spinal cord axonal injury J Neurosci 17:1055-1063, 1997.
2. Aguayo AJ, David S, Richardson P, Bray GM: Axonal elongation in peripheral and central nervous system transplants. Adv Cell Neurobiol 3:215-234, 1982.
3. Allen AR: Remarks on the histopathological changes in the spinal cord due to impact: An experimental study. J Nerv Ment Dis 41:141-147, 1914.
4. Allen AR: Surgery of experimental lesion of spinal cord equivalent to crush injury of fracture dislocation of spinal column: A preliminary report. JAMA 57:878-880, 1911.
5. American Spinal Injury Association: Standards for Neurological and Functional Classification of Spinal Cord Injury, Revised Edition. Chicago, American Spinal Injury Association, 1992.
6. Anthes DL, Theriault E, Tator CH: Characterization of axonal ultrastructural pathology following experimental spinal cord compression injury. Brain Res 702:1-16, 1996.
7. Anthes DL, Theriault E, Tator CH: Ultrastructural evidence for arteriolar vasospasm after spinal cord trauma. Neurosurgery 39:804-814, 1996.
8. Basso DM, Beattie MS, Bresnahan JC: Histological and locomotor studies of graded spinal cord contusion using the N4K weight-drop device: Comparison with transection. Exp Neurol 139:244-256, 1996.
9. Benes V: Spinal Cord Injury. London, Balliere Tindall Cassell, 1968.
10. Benzel EC, Larson SJ: Functional recovery after decompressive spine operation for cervical spine fractures. Neurosurgery 20: 742-746, 1987.
11. Blight AR: Effect of 4-aminopyridine on axonal conduction-block in chronic spinal cord injury. Brain Res Bull 22:47-52, 1989.
12. Blight AR: Electrophysiological approaches to mechanisms of central nervous system trauma, in Salzman SK, Faden AI (eds): The Neurobiology of Central Nervous System Trauma. New York, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp 41-56.
13. Blight AR, Young W: Central axons in injured cat spinal cord recover electrophysiological function following remyelination by Schwann cells. J Neurol Sci 91:15-34, 1989.
14. Bracken MB, Holford TR: Effects of timing of methylprednisolone or naloxone administration on recovery of segmental and long-tract neurological function in NASCIS 2. J Neurosurg 79:500-507, 1993.
15. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Collins WF, Holford TR, Young W, Baskin DS, Eisenberg HM, Flamm E, Leo-Summers L, Maroon J, Marshall LF, Perot PL Jr, Piepmeier J, Sonntag VKH, Wagner FC, Wilberger JE, Winn HR: A randomized, controlled trial of methylprednisolone or naloxone in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury: Results of the second national acute spinal cord injury study. New Engl J Med 322:1405-1411, 1990.
16. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Holford TR, Leo-Summers L, Aldrich EF, Fazl M, Fehlings MG, Herr DL, Hitchon PW, Marshall LF, Nockels RP, Pascale V, Perot PL Jr, Piepmeier J, Sonntag VKH, Wagner F, Wilberger JE, Winn HR, Young W: Administration of methylprednisolone for 24 or 48 hours or tirilazad mesylate for 48 hours in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury: Results of the third national acute spinal cord injury randomized controlled trial. JAMA 277:1597-1604, 1997.
17. Bregman BS, Bernstein-Goral H: Both regenerating and late-developing pathways contribute to transplant-induced anatomical plasticity after spinal cord lesions at birth. Exp Neurol 112:49-63, 1991.
18. Brodkey JA, Gates MA, Laywell ED, Steindler DA: The complex nature of neuroregeneration related molecules. Exp Neurol 123: 251-270, 1993.
19. Brodkey JS, Richards DE, Blasingame JP, Nulsen FE: Reversible spinal cord trauma in cats: Additive effects of direct pressure and ischemia. J Neurosurg 37:591-593, 1972.
20. Brunette DD, Rockswold GL: Neurologic recovery following rapid spinal realignment for complete cervical spinal cord injury. J Trauma 27:445-447, 1987.
21. Bunge RP: Expanding roles for the Schwann cell: Ensheathment, myelination, trophism and regeneration. Curr Opin Neurobiol 3:805-809, 1993.
22. Chen DF, Schneider GE, Martinou JC, Tonegawa S: Bcl-2 promotes regeneration of severed axons in mammalian CNS. Nature 385:434-439, 1997.
23. Cheng H, Cao Y, Olson L: Spinal cord repair in adult paraplegic rats: Partial restoration of hind limb function. Science 273:510-513, 1996.
24. Dimitrijevic MR: Residual motor functions in spinal cord injury, in Waxman SG (ed): Functional Recovery in Neurological Disease. New York, Raven Press, 1988, pp 139-154.
25. Dolan EJ, Tator CH: The effect of blood transfusion, dopamine and gamma-hydroxybutyrate on post traumatic ischemia of the spinal cord. J Neurosurg 56:350-358, 1982.
26. Dolan EJ, Tator CH, Endrenyi L: The value of decompression for acute experimental spinal cord compression injury. J Neurosurg 53:749-755, 1980.
27. Donovan WH, Kopaniky D, Stolzmann E, Carter RE: The neurological and skeletal outcome in patients with closed cervical cord injury. J Neurosurg 66:690-694, 1987.
28. Duh MS, Shepard MJ, Wilberger JE, Bracken MB: The effectiveness of surgery on the treatment of acute spinal cord injury and its relation to pharmacological treatment. Neurosurgery 35:240-249, 1994.
29. Eidelberg E, Sullivan J, Brigham A: Immediate consequences of spinal cord injury: Possible role of potassium in axonal conduction block. Surg Neurol 3:317-321, 1975.
30. Faden AI, Ellison JA, Noble LJ: Effects of competitive and non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonists in spinal cord injury. Eur J Pharmacol 175:165-174, 1990.
31. Farooque M, Hillered L, Holtz A, Olsson Y: Changes of extracellular levels of amino acids after graded compression trauma to the spinal cord: An experimental study in the rat using microdialysis. J Neurotrauma 13:537-548, 1996.
32. Fehlings MG, Tator CH: A review of spinal cord regeneration. Adv Trauma 3:223-240, 1988.
33. Fehlings MG, Tator CH: The relationships among the severity of spinal cord injury, residual neurological function, axon counts, and counts of retrogradely labelled neurons after experimental spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 132:220-228, 1995.
34. Fehlings MG, Tator CH, Linden RD: The effect of direct current field on recovery from experimental spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg 68:781-792, 1988.
35. Fehlings MG, Tator CH, Linden RD: The effect of nimodipine and dextran on axonal function and blood flow following experimental spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg 71:403-416, 1989.
36. Fernandez E, Pallini R, Lauretti L, Mercanti D, Serra A, Calissano P: Spinal cord transection in adult rats: Effects of local infusion of nerve growth factor on the corticospinal tract axons. Neurosurgery 33:889-893, 1993.
37. Frankel HL, Hancock DO, Hyslop G, Melzak J, Michaelis LS, Unger GH, Vernon JDS, Walsh JJ: The value of postural reduction in the initial management of closed injuries of the spine with paraplegia and tetraplegia. Part I. Paraplegia 7:179-192, 1969.
38. Frisén J, Johansson CB, Török C, Risling M, Lendahl U: Rapid, widespread, and long-lasting induction of nestin contributes to the generation of glial scar tissue after CNS injury. J Cell Biol 131:453-464, 1995.
39. Geisler FH, Dorsey FC, Coleman WP: Recovery of motor function after spinal cord injury: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial with GM-1 ganglioside. New Engl J Med 324:1829-1838, 1991.
40. Gillingham J: Early management of spinal cord trauma. J Neurosurg 44:766-767, 1976 (letter).
41. Guha A, Tator CH, Endrenyi L, Piper I.: Decompression of the spinal cord improves recovery after acute experimental spinal cord compression injury. Paraplegia 25:324-329, 1987.
42. Hall ED: Inhibition of lipid peroxidation in CNS trauma. J Neurotrauma 8[Suppl 1]:S31-S41, 1991.
43. Hansebout RR: A comprehensive review of methods of improving cord recovery after acute spinal cord injury, in Tator CH (ed): Early Management of Acute Spinal Cord Injury. New York, Raven Press, 1982, pp 181-196.
44. Hasan SJ, Nelson BH, Valenzuela JI, Keirstead HS, Shull SE, Ethell DW, Steeves JD: Functional repair of transected spinal cord in embryonic chick. Rest Neurol Neurosci 2:137-154, 1991.
45. Haves KC, Blight AR, Potter PJ, Allatt RD, Hsieh JTC, Wolfe DL, Lam S, Hamilton JT: Preclinical trial of 4-aminopyridine in patients with chronic spinal cord injury. Paraplegia 31:216-224, 1993.
46. Herdegen T, Skene P, Bahr M: The c-Jun transcription factor: Bipotential mediator of neuronal death, survival and regeneration. Trends Neurosci 20:227-231, 1997.
47. Hughes JT: Pathology of the Spinal Cord. Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1966.
48. Hurlbert RJ, Tator CH, Theriault E: Dose response study of the pathological effects of chronically applied direct current stimulation on the normal rat spinal cord. J Neurosurg 79:905-916, 1993.
49. Iwashita Y, Kawaguchi S, Murata M: Restoration of function by replacement of spinal cord segments in the rat. Nature 367:167-170, 1994.
50. Kiss ZHT, Tator CH: Neurogenic shock, in Geller ER (ed): Shock and Resuscitation. New York, McGraw Hill, 1993, pp 421-440.
51. Koyanagi I, Tator CH: The effects of cortical stimulation, anesthesia and recording site on somatosensory evoked potentials in the rat. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 101:534-542, 1996.
52. Koyanagi I, Tator CH, Lea PJ: Three-dimensional analysis of the vascular system in the rat spinal cord with scanning electron microscopy of vascular corrosion casts: Part 1 - Normal spinal cord. Neurosurgery 33:277-284, 1993.
53. Koyanagi I, Tator CH, Lea PJ: Three-dimensional analysis of the vascular system in the rat spinal cord with scanning electron microscopy of vascular corrosion casts: Part 2 - Acute spinal cord injury. Neurosurgery 33:285-292, 1993.
54. Koyanagi I, Tator CH, Theriault E: Silicone rubber microangiography of acute spinal cord injury in the rat. Neurosurgery 32: 260-268, 1993.
55. Kwo S, Young W, Decrescito V: Spinal cord sodium, potassium, calcium and water concentration changes in rats after graded contusion injury. J Neurotrauma 6:13-24, 1989.
56. Levi L, Wolf A, Belzberg H: Hemodynamic parameters in patients with acute cervical cord trauma: Description, intervention, and prediction of outcome. Neurosurgery 33:1007-1017, 1993.
57. Liu D, McAdoo DJ: An experimental model combing microdialysis with electrophysiology, histology and neurochemistry for exploring mechanisms of secondary damage in spinal cord injury: Effects of potassium. J Neurotrauma 10:349-362, 1993.
58. Lozano AM, Labes M, Roder J, Roach AR: An antineuronal monoclonal antibody that reverses neurite outgrowth inhibition by CNS myelin. J Neurosci Res 42:306-313, 1995.
59. Maynard FM, Reynolds GG, Fountain S, Wilmot C, Hamilton R: Neurological prognosis after traumatic quadriplegia: Three year experience of California regional spinal cord injury care system. J Neurosurg 50:611-616, 1979.
60. McKenzie AL, Hall JJ, Aihara N, Fukuda K, Noble LJ: Immunolocalization of endothelin in the traumatized spinal cord: Relationship to blood-spinal cord barrier breakdown. J Neurotrauma 12:257-268, 1995.
61. Morshead CM, Reynolds BA, Craig CG, McBurney MW, Staines WA, Morassutti D, Weiss S, van der Kooy D: Neural stem cells in the adult mammalian forebrain: A relatively quiescent subpopulation of subependymal cells. Neuron 13:1071-1082, 1994.
62. Namiki J, Tator CH: Injury-reactive ependymal cells in the spinal cord of adult rats. J Neurotrauma 15:55, 1998 (abstr).
63. Nashmi R, Imamura H, Tator CH, Fehlings MG: Serial recording of somatosensory and myoelectric motor evoked potentials: Role in assessing functional recovery after graded spinal cord injury in the rat. J Neurotrauma 14:151-159, 1997.
64. Otani K, Abe H, Kadoya S, Nakagwa H, Ikata T, Tominaga S, Arima T, Ohtsuka T, Onwada T, Aikawa N, Hanaoka K: Beneficial effect of methylprednisolone sodium succinate in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury. Sekitsui Sekizui J 7:633-647, 1994.
65. Panter SS, Yum SW, Faden AI: Alteration in extracellular amino acids after traumatic spinal cord injury. Ann Neurol 27:96-99, 1990.
66. Penn RD, Kroin JS, York MM, Cedarbaum JM: Intrathecal ciliary neurotrophic factor delivery for treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Phase 1 trial). Neurosurgery 40:94-100, 1997.
67. Petitjean ME, Pointillart V, Daverat P, Dabadie P, Senegas J: Administration of methylprednisolone or nimodipine or both versus placebo at the acute phase of spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 12:456, 1995 (abstr).
68. Qiano J, Hayes KC, Hsieh JTC, Potter PJ, Delaney GA: Effects of 4-aminopyridine on motor evoked potentials in patients with spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 14:135-149, 1997.
69. Reier PJ, Bregman BS, Wujek JR: Intraspinal transplantation of embryonic spinal cord tissue in neonatal and adult rats. J Comp Neurol 247:275-296, 1986.
70. Reynolds BA, Weiss S: Generation of neurons and astrocytes from isolated cells of the adult mammalian central nervous system. Science 255:1707-1710, 1992.
71. Richardson PM, Verge VMK: The induction of a regenerative propensity in sensory neurons following peripheral axonal injury. J Neurocytol 15:585-594, 1986.
72. Richardson PM, McGuinness UM, Aguayo AJ: Axons from CNS neurons regenerate into PNS grafts. Nature 284:264-265, 1980.
73. Rivlin AS, Tator CH: Effect of duration of acute spinal cord compression in a new acute cord injury model in the rat. Surg Neurol 10:39-43, 1978.
74. Rivlin AS, Tator CH: Effect of vasodilators and myelotomy on recovery after acute spinal cord injury in rats. J Neurosurg 50:349-352, 1979.
75. Rivlin AS, Tator CH: Objective clinical assessment of function after experimental spinal cord injury in the rat. J Neurosurg 47:577-581, 1997.
76. Rosner MJ, Elias Z, Coley I: New principles of resuscitation for brain and spinal injury. NC Med J 45:703-708, 1984.
77. Rowed DW: Value of somatosensory evoked potentials for prognosis in partial cord injuries, in Tator CH (ed): Early Management of Acute Spinal Cord Injury. New York, Raven Press, 1982, pp 167-180.
78. Rowed DW, McLean JAG, Tator CH: Somatosensory evoked potentials in acute spinal cord injury: Prognostic value. Surg Neurol 9:203-210, 1978.
79. Schnell L, Schneider R, Kolbeck R, Barde Y-A, Schwab ME: Neurotrophin-3 enhances sprouting of corticospinal tract during development and after adult spinal cord lesion. Nature 367:170-173, 1994.
80. Schwab ME, Bartholdi D: Degeneration and regeneration of axons in the lesioned spinal cord. Physiol Rev 76:319-370, 1996.
81. Simpson SB: Morphology of the regenerated spinal cord in the lizard, Anolis carolinensis. J Comp Neurol 134:193-210, 1968.
82. Sussman BJ: Early management of spinal cord trauma. J Neurosurg 44:766, 1976 (letter).
83. Tadie M, Jin O, Lui S, Privat A: Experimental and clinical study of an inhibitor of NMDA receptors in the early treatment of spinal cord injuries. J Neurotrauma 12:349, 1995 (abstr).
84. Tarlov IM: Spinal Cord Compression: Mechanisms of Paralysis and Treatment. Springfield, Charles C Thomas, 1957.
85. Tarlov IM, Klinger H: Spinal cord compression studies: Part II - Time limits for recovery after acute compression in dogs. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 71:271-290, 1954.
86. Tator CH: Spine-spinal cord relationships in spinal cord trauma. Clin Neurosurg 30:479-194, 1983.
87. Tator CH: Ischemia as a secondary neural injury, in Salzman SK, Faden AI (eds): The Neurobiology of Central Nervous System Trauma. New York, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp 209-215.
88. Tator CH: Epidemiology and general characteristics of the spinal cord injury patient, in Benzel EC, Tator CH (eds): Contemporary Management of Spinal Cord Injury. Park Ridge, American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1995, pp 9-13.
89. Tator CH: Update on the pathophysiology and pathology of acute spinal cord injury. Brain Pathol 5:407-413, 1995.
90. Tator CH: Classification of spinal cord injury based on neurological presentation, in Narayan RK, Wilberger JE, Povlishock JT (eds): Neurotrauma. New York, McGraw Hill, 1996, pp 1059-1073.
91. Tator CH: Pathophysiology and pathology of spinal cord injury, in Wilkins RH, Rengachary SS (eds): Neurosurgery. New York, McGraw Hill, 1996, ed 2, vol 2, pp 2847-2859.
92. Tator CH, Fehlings MG: Review of the secondary injury theory of acute spinal cord trauma with special emphasis on vascular mechanisms. J Neurosurg 75:15-26, 1991.
93. Tator CH, Koyanagi I: Vascular mechanisms in the pathophysiology of human spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg 86:483-492, 1997.
94. Tator CH, Duncan EG, Edmonds VE, Lapczak LI, Andrews DF: Comparison of surgical conservative management in 208 patients with acute spinal cord injury. Can J Neurol Sci 14:60-69, 1987.
95. Tator CH, Duncan EG, Edmonds VE, Lapczak LI, Andrews DF: Changes in epidemiology of acute spinal cord injury from 1947 to 1981. Surg Neurol 40:207-215, 1993.
96. Tator CH, Duncan EG, Edmonds VE, Lapczak LI, Andrews DF: Neurological recovery, mortality and length of stay after acute spinal cord injury associated with changes in management. Paraplegia 33:254-262, 1995.
97. Tator CH, Rowed DW, Schwartz ML: Sunnybrook cord injury scales for assessing neurological injury and neurological recovery, in Tator CH (ed): Early Management of Acute Spinal Cord Injury. New York, Raven Press, 1982, pp 7-24.
98. Tetzlaff W, Kobayashi NR, Bedard AM: BDNF prevents atrophy of rat rubrospinal neurons after axotomy. Soc Neurosci Abstr 19:1104, 1993 (abstr).
99. Theriault E, Tetzlaff W, Tator CH: Elevated gene expression in the red nucleus after spinal cord compression injury. Regener Transplant NeuroReport 3:559-562, 1992.
100. Tymianski M, Tator CH: Normal and abnormal calcium homeostasis in neurons: A basis for the pathophysiology of traumatic and ischemic central nervous system injury. Neurosurgery 38:1176-1195, 1996.
101. Tymianski M, Charlton MP, Carlen PL, Tator CH: Source specificity of early calcium neurotoxicity in cultured embryonic spinal neurons. J Neurosci 13:2085-2104, 1993.
102. Wagner FC, Chehrazi B: Early decompression and neurological outcome in acute cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg 56: 699-705, 1982.
103. Wallace MC, Tator CH, Lewis AJ: Chronic regenerative changes in the spinal cord after cord compression injury in rats. Surg Neurol 27:209-219, 1987.
104. Weiss S, Dunne C, Hewson J, Wohl C, Wheatley M, Peterson AC, Reynolds BA: Multipotent CNS stem cells are present in the adult mammalian spinal cord and ventricular neuroaxis. J Neurosci 16:7599-7609, 1996.
105. Wrathall JR, Teng YD, Choiniere D: Amelioration of functional deficits from spinal cord trauma with systemically administered NBQX, an antagonist on non-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Exp Neurol 137:119-126, 1996.
106. Xu WM, Guenard V, Kleitman N, Bunge MB: Axonal regeneration into Schwann cell-seeded guidance channels grafted into transected adult rat spinal cord. J Comp Neurol 351:145-160, 1995.
107. Xu J, Hsu CY, Liu TH, Hogan EL, Perot PL, Tai H-H: Leukotriene B4 release and polymorphonuclear cell infiltration in spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 55:907-912, 1990.
108. Young W: Correlation of somatosensory evoked potentials and neurological findings in spinal cord injury, in Tator CH (ed): Early Management of Acute Spinal Cord Injury. New York, Raven Press, 1982, pp 153-166.
109. Young W, Huang PP, Kume-Kick J: Biomolecular mechanisms of the injury process, in Benzel EC, Tator CH (eds): Management of Spinal Cord Injury. Park Ridge, American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1995, pp 27-42.