Traumatic amnesia, repression, and hippocampus injury due to emotional stress, corticosteroids and enkephalins

Child Psychiatry and Human Development

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 169-185

  Joseph, R ^a,b  

^a Brain Research Laboratory

^b Brain Research Laboratory   (United States)

Author keywords

Amygdala; Corticosteroids; Emotion; Enkephalins; Hippocampus; LTP; PTSD; Repressed Memories; Sex Abuse; Stress; Traumatic Amnesia

Indexed keywords

CORTICOSTEROID; ENKEPHALIN;

AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; AROUSAL; ARTICLE; BRAIN INJURY; DEFENSE MECHANISM; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; EMOTIONAL STRESS; EXPERIENCE; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; RETROGRADE AMNESIA; STRESS;

ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; ADULT; AMNESIA; CHILD; CHILD ABUSE, SEXUAL; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; ENKEPHALINS; FEMALE; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMANS; INFANT; MALE; REPRESSION; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC;

EID: 0031767055     PISSN: 0009398X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1025092117657     Document Type: Article

References (128)

1. Berlyne DE: Conflict, Arousal, and Curiosity. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.
2. Gold PE: A proposed neurobiologic basis for regulating memory storage for significant events. In E. Winograd & U. Neisser (Eds.), Affect and Accuracy in Recall. Cambridge: Cambride U Press. 1992.
3. McGaugh JL: Involvement of hormonal and neuromodulatory systems in the regulation of memory storage. Ann Rev Neuroscience 12:255-287, 1989.
4. Torras-Garcia M, Portell-Cortes I, Costa-Miserachs D, Morgado-Bernal I: Long-term memory modulation by postraining epinephrine in rats: differential effects depending on the basic learning capacity. Beh Neuroscience 111:301-308, 1997.
5. Yerkes RM, Dodson JD: The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit formation. J Comp Neurol Psychol 8:459-482, 1980.
6. Christianson S-A: Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: A critical review. Psychol Bull 12:284-309, 1992.
7. Como P, Joseph R, Fiducia D, Siegel J: Visually evoked potentials and after-discharge as a function of arousal and frontal lesion. Proceedings Soc Neurosc 15:202, 1979.
8. Deffenbacher K: The influence of arousal on reliability of testimony. In: Clifford BR, Lloyd-Boistock S. (Eds.), Evaluating Witness Evidence. New York: Wiley, 1983.
9. Easterbrook JA: The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior. Psychol Rev 66:183-201, 1959.
10. Joseph R, Forrest N, Fiducia N, Como P, Siegel J: Electrophysiological and behavioral correlates of arousal. Physiol Psychol 9:90-95, 1981.
11. Joseph R: Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, Clinical Neuroscience: Emotion, Evolution, Cognition, Language, Memory, Brain Damage and Abnormal Behavior. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1996.
12. Kebeck G, Lohaus A: Effect of emotional arousal on free recall of complex material. Percep Motor Skills 63:461-462, 1986.
13. Kramer M. Buckout C, Eugenio E: Weapon focus, arousal, and eyewitness memory: Attention must be paid. Law Human Beh 14: 167-184, 1990.
14. Brazier WAB: Stimulation of the hippocampus in man using implanted electrodes. In Brazier MAB (Ed.), RNA and Brain Function, Memory and Learning. Berkeley, U. California, 1966.
15. Chapman LF, Markham CH, Rand RW, Crandall PH: Memory changes induced by stimulation of the hippocampus or amygdala in epilepsy patients implanted with electrodes. Trans Am Neurol Ass 92:50-56, 1967.
16. Grastyan E, Lissak K, Madarasz I. Donhoffer H: Hippocampal electrical activity during the development of conditioned reflexes. Electroencephalography Clin Neurophys 11:409-430, 1959.
17. Green JD, Adey WR: Electrophysiological studies of hipipocampal connections and excitability. Electroencephalography Clin Neurophys 8:245-262, 1956.
18. Green JE, Arduini A: Hippocampal electrical activity in arousal. J Neurophys 17:533-557, 1954.
19. Stein MB, Hannah C. Koverloa C, McClarty B: Neuroanatomic and cognitive correlates of early abuse. Am Psychiatric As Syllabus Proceedings Sum, 148:113, 1995.
20. Bremner JD, Randall P, Scott TM., Bronen, RA, Seibyl JP, Southwick SM, Delaney RC, McCarty G, Charney DS, Innis RB. MRI-based measurement of hippocampal volume in patients with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiat 152:973-981, 1995.
21. Uno H, Tarara R, Else J., Suleman M, Sapolsky RM: Hippocampal damage associated with prolonged and fatal stress in primates. J Neurosci 9:1705-1711, 1989.
22. Lupien SJ, McEwen BS: The acute effects of corticosteroids on cognition: integration of animal and human model studies. Brain Res Rev 24:1-27, 1997.
23. Sapolsky RM: Glucocorticoids, hippocampal damage and the glutomatergic synapse. Prog Brain Res 86:13-23, 1990.
24. Sapolsky RM: Why stress is bad for your brain. Science 273:749-750, 1996.
25. Frisk F. Milner B: The role of the left hippocampal region in the acquistion and retention of story content. Neuropsychologia, 28:349-359, 1990.
26. Milner B: Memory and the medial temporal regions of the brain. In: Pribram K. Broadbent DE (Eds.), Biology of Memory. New York: Academic Press, 1970.
27. Milner B, Corkin S, Teuber HL: Further analysis of the hippocampal amnesic syndrome. Neuropsychologia, 6:215-234, 1968.
28. Penfield W, Milner B: Memory deficit produced by bilateral lesions in the hippocampal zone. Arch Neurol Psychiat 79:475-497, 1958.
29. Douglas RJ: The hippocampus and behavior. Psych Bull 67;416-442, 1967.
30. Rawlins JNP: Associations across time: The hippocampus as a temporary memory store. Behav Brain Sciences 8:479-496, 1985.
31. Reed JM, Squire LR: Impaired recognition memory in patients with lesions limited to the hippocampal formation. Beh Neuroscience 111:667-675, 1997.
32. Scoville WB, Milner B: Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. J Neurology Neurosurgery Psychiat 20:11-21, 1957.
33. Squire LR: Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psych Rev 99:195-231, 1992.
34. Victor M, Agamanolis J: Amnesia due to lesions confined to the hippocampus: A clinical-pathological study. J Cog Neurosci 2: 246-257, 1990.
35. Zola-Morgan S, Squire LR: Medial temporal lesions in monkeys impair memory on a variety of tasks sensitive to human amnesia. Behav Neurosci 99:22-34, 1985.
36. Zola-Morgan S, Squire LR: Memory impairment in monkeys following lesions of the hippocampus. Behav Neurosci 100:155-160, 1986.
37. Diamond DM, Bennett MC, Fleshner M, Rose GM: Inverted-U relationship between the leel of peripheral corticosterone and the magnitude of hippocampal primed burst potentiation. Hippocampus 2:421-430, 1992.
38. Diamond DM, Fleshner M, Rose GM: Psychological stress repeatedly blocks hippocampal primed burst potentiation in behaving rats. Behav Brain Res 62:1-9, 1994.
39. Shores TJ, Seib TB, Levine S, Rose GM: Inescapable versus escapable shock modulates long-term potentiation in the rat hippocampus. Science 244:224-226, 1989.
40. Spoont MR: Modulatory role of serotonin in neural information processing: Implications for human psychopathology. Psych Bull 112: 330-350, 1992.
41. Vanderwolf CH, Leung L-WS: Hippocampal rhythmical slow activity. In: Seifert W. (Ed.), Neurobiology of the Hippocampus. San Diego, Academic Press, 1983.
42. Barnes C A, McNaughton BL: An age comparison of the rates of acquisition and forgetting of spatial information in relation to long-term enhancement of hippocampal synapses. Beh Neurosci 99:1040-1048, 1985.
43. Gustafsson B, Wigstrom H: Physiological mechanisms underlying long-term potentiation. Trends Neurosci 11:156-162, 1988.
44. Lynch G: Synapses, Circuits, and the beginnings of Memory. Cambridge, MIT Press, 1986.
45. Lynch G, Larson J, Muller D, Granger R: Neural networks and networks of Neurons. In: McGaugh JL, Winberger NM, Lynch G. (Eds.), Brain Organization and Memory. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
46. Medina JH, Izquierdo I: Retrograde messengers, long-term potentiation and memory. Brain Res Rev 21:185-194, 1995.
47. Kovacs GL, Telegdy G., Lissak K: 5-Hydroxytryptamine and the mediation of pituitary-adrenocortical hormones in the extinction of active avoidance behavior. Neuroendocrinology 1:219-230, 1976.
48. Warembourg M: Radioautographic study of the rat brain and pituitary after injection of 3H dexamesthasone. Cell Tissue Res 161:183-191, 1975.
49. Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Weingartner H, Thompson K, Breier A, Doran A. Rubinow D, Pickar D: Cognitive effects of corticosteroids. Am J Psychiat 147:1297-1303, 1990.
50. Wolkowitz OM, Weignartner H, Rubinow DR, Jimerson D, Kling M, Berretini W, Thompson K, Breier A, Doran A, Reus VI, Pickar D: Steroid modulation of human memory: biochemical correlates. Biol Psychiat 33:744-746, 1993.
51. Dubrovsky BO, Liquornik MS, Noble P, Gijsbers K: Effects of 5 alpha-dihydrocorticosterone on evolved responses and long-term potentiation. Brain Res Bull 19: 635-638, 1987.
52. Briere J, Elliott DM: Immediate and long-term impacts of child sexual abuse. The Future of Children 4:54-69, 1994.
53. Courtois CA: Healing the Incest Wound. New York: Norton, 1994.
54. Williams LM: Recall of childhood trauma: a prospective study of women's memories of child sexual abuse. J. Consult Clin Psychol 62:1167-1176, 1994.
55. Melchert TP: Childhood memory and a history of different forms of abuse. Prof Psychol: Res Pract 27:438-446, 1996.
56. Donaldson MA, Gardner R.Jr: Diagnosis and treatment of Traumatic Stress among women after childhood incest. In: Figley CR (Ed.), Trauma and its Wake. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1985.
57. Tromp S, Koss MP, Tharan M: Are rape memories different? A comparison of rape, other unpleasant and pleasant memories among employed women. J Traumatic Stress 4:222-255, 1995.
58. Christianson S-A, Nilsson L-G: Functional amnesia as induced by a psychological trauma. Mem Cog 12:142-155, 1984.
59. Koss MP: Rape: scope, impact interventions, and public policy response. Am Psycholog 1062-1069, 1993.
60. Briere J, Berliner L, Bulkey J, Jenney C, Reid T. The APSAC Handbook of Child Maltreatment. Newbury Park: Sage, 1996.
61. Kuehn L: Looking down a gun barrel. Percep Motor Skills 39: 1159-1164, 1974.
62. Wilson JP, Raphael B. International Handbook of Traumatic Stress Syndromes, New York: Plenum 377-384, 1993.
63. Resnick HS, Kilpatrick DG, Dansky BS, Saunders BE, Best CL: Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. J Consult Clin Psychol 61:984-991, 1993.
64. Blake DD, Cook JD, Keane TM: Post-traumatic stress disorder and coping in veterans who are seeking medical treatment. J Clin Psychol 48:695-704, 1992.
65. Grinker RR, Spiegel JP: Men Under Stress. McGraw-Hill, New York. 1945,
66. Kulka RA, Schlenger WE, Fairbank JA, Hough RL, Jordan BK, Marmar CR, Weiss DS: Trauma and the Vitenam War Generation. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1990.
67. Southard EE: Shell-shock and other Neuropsychiatric Problems. Boston. 1919.
68. van der Kolk BA: Psychological Trauma. American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC, 1987.
69. Green BL: Disasters and posttraumatic stress disorder. In: Davidson JRT, Foa EB. (Eds.), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Washington DC: American Psychiatric press, 75-97, 1993.
70. Terr L: Unchained Memories: True Stories of Traumatic Memories, Lost and Found. New York: Basic Books, 1994.
71. Packan DR, Sapolsky RM: Glucocorticoid endangerment of the hippocampus: tissue, steroid and receptor specificity. Neuroendocrinology 51:613-618, 1990.
72. Feigley, DA, Spear NE: Effect of age and punishment condition on long-term retetion by the rat of active- and passive-avoidance learning. J Comp Physiol Psychol 73:515-526, 1970.
73. Spear NE: Experimental analysis of infantile amnesia. In: Kilstrom JF, Evans FJ. (Eds.), Functional Disorders of Memory. New Jersey: Erlbaum, 1979.
74. Warren AR, Swartwood, JN: Developmental issues in flashbulb memory research: Children recall the Challenger event. In: Winograd E, Neisser U. (Eds.), Affect and Accuracy in Recall. Cambridge: Cambride University Press. 1992.
75. Winograd E, Killinger W: Relating age at encoding in early childhood to adult recall. J Exp Psychology: Gen 112:412-422, 1983.
76. Benes FM, Turtle M, Khan Y, Farol P: Myelination of a key relay zone in the hippocampal formation occurs in the human brain during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Arch Gen Neurol 51:477-484, 1994.
77. Joseph R: The meuropsychology of development: Hemispheric laterality, limbic language, and the origin of thought. J Clin Psychol 44:3-34, 1982.
78. Joseph R, Gallagher RE, Holloway J. Kahn J: Two brains, one child: Interhemispheric transfer and confabulation in children aged 4, 7, 10. Cortex 20:317-331, 1984.
79. Babineck M: Jessica McClure 10 Years after rescue. San Francisco Chronicle Oct.14:A17, 1997.
80. Joseph R. (personal communication)
81. Hallissy E. Tara Burke:15 Years after kidnapping she's thriving with the help of her police guardian angel. San Francisco Chronicle Oct 27:A3-5, 1997.
82. Joseph R, Gallagher RE: Gender and early environmental influences on activity, overresponsiveness, and exploration. Develop Psychobiology 13:527-544, 1980.
83. Fisher CM: Transient global amnesia: Precipitating activities and other observations. Arch Neurol 39:605-608, 1982.
84. Schacter DL, Wang P L, Tulving E, Freedman, M: Functional retrograde amnesia: A quantitative case study. Neuropsychologia 20: 523-532, 1982.
85. Neisser U, Harsch N: Phantom flashbulbs: False recollections of hearing the news about Challenger. In: Winograd E, Neisser U. (Eds.), Affect and Accuracy in Recall. Cambridge: Cambride University Press. 1992.
86. Blakemore C: Mechanics of the Mind. New York: Cambridge U Press, 1977.
87. Rolls ET: Information representation, processing and storage in the brain: analysis at the single neuron level. In: Changeuz J-P. Konishi M. (Eds.), The Neural and Molecular Bases of Learning. New York, Wiley. 87;503-540, 1987.
88. Rolls ET: Functions of neural networks in the hippocampus and neocortex in memory. In: Byrne JH, Berry WO. (Eds.), Neural Models of Plasticity: Theoretical and Empirical Approaches. New York: Acaemic Press, 1988.
89. Schmajuk NA, Buhusi CV: Stimulus configuration, occasion setting and the hippocampus. Beh Neuroscience 111:235-258, 1997.
90. Redding FK: Modification of sensory cortical evoked potentials by hippocampal stimulation. Electroencephalography Clin Neurophys 22: 74-83, 1967.
91. Guillery RW: A quantitative study of the mamillary bodies and their connexions. J Anatomy 89:19-32, 1955.
92. Nauta WJH: An experimental study of the fornix in the rat. J Comp Neurol 104:247-272, 1956.
93. Nauta WJH: Hippocampal projections and related neural pathways to the midbrain in cat. Brain 81:319-340, 1958.
94. Clark CVH, Isaacson RL: Effects of bilateral hippocampal ablation on DRL performance. J Comp Phys Psychol 59:137-140, 1965.
95. Ellen P, Wilson AS, Powell EW. Septal inhibition and timing behavior in the rat. J Comp Neurol 10:120-132, 1964.
96. McEarchern JC, Shaw CA: An alternative to the LTP orthodoxy: a plasticity-pathology continuum model. Brain Res Rev 22:51-92, 1996.
97. Kauer JA, Malenka RC, Nicoll RA: The action of neuropeptides. Nature 334:249-252, 1988.
98. Gahwiler BH: The action of neuropeptides on the bioelectric activity of hippocampal neurons. In: Seifert W. (Ed.), Neurobiology of the Hippocampus. San Diego: Academic Press. 1983.
99. Henriksen SJ, Bloom FE, McCoy F, Rose GM: B-endrophin induces nonconvulsive limbic seizures. Proc Nat Acad Sci 75: 5221-5225, 1978.
100. Saphier D, Feldman S: Iontophoretic application of glucocorticoid inhibits identified neurones in the rat paraventricular nucleus. Brain Res 453:1228-1232, 1988.
101. Pfaff DW, Silva MTA. Weiss JM: Telmetered recording of hormone effects on hippocampal neurons. Science 171:394-395, 1971.
102. Pugh CR, Fleshner M, Rudy JW: Type II glucocorticoid receptor antagonists impair context but not auditory-cue fear conditioning in juvenile rats. Neurobiology Learn Mem 67:75-79, 1997.
103. Starkman M, Gebarski S, Berent S, Schteingart D: Hippocampal formation volume, memory dysfunction, and cortisol levels in patients with Cushing's Syndrome. Biol Psychiat 32:756-770, 1992.
104. Hua S-Y, Chen Y-Z: Membrane receptor-mediated electrophysiological effects of gulocorticoid on mammalian neurons. Endocrinology 124:687-691, 1989.
105. Majewska MD, Harrison NL. Schwartz RD, Barker JL, Paul SM: Steroid hormone metabolites are barbituate-like modulators of the GABA receptors. Science 232: 1004-1007, 1986.
106. Beaulieu EE: Steroid hormone antagonists at the receptor level: a role for heat shock protein M.W. 90,000. J Cell Biochem 35:161-174, 1987.
107. Herman J, Watson S, Chao H, Coirini H, McEwen BS: Diurnal regulation of glucocorticoid receptor and mineralocorticoid receptor mRNAs in rat hippocampus. Mol Cell Neurosci 4:181-190, 1993.
108. Krystal JH: Animals models for post traumatic stress disorder. In: Giller Jr EI. (Ed.), Biological Assessment and Treatment of Postraumatic Stress Disorder. Washington: American Psychiatric Press, 1990.
109. Goelet P, Kandel ER: Tracking the flow of learned information from membrane receptors to genome. Trends in Neuroscience 9:492-499, 1986.
110. Gurvits TV, Shenton, ME, Hikama H., Ohta H, Lasko N. Gilbterson MW, Orr SP, Kikinis R., Jolesz FA, McCarley RW, Pitman RK: Magnetic resonance imaging study of hippocampal volume in chronic, combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiat 40:1091-1099, 1996.
111. Bremner JD, Randall P, Southwick SM, Krystal JH, Innis RB, Charney DS: Stress-induced changes in memory and development. Am Psychiat As Syllabus Proceed Sum 148:112, 1995.
112. Gloor P: Role of the amygdala in temporal lobe epilepsy. In: Aggleton JP (Ed.), The Amygdala. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1992.
113. Halgren E: Emotional neurophysiology of the amygdala within the context of human cognition. In: Aggleton JP (Ed.), The Amygdala. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1992.
114. Kesner RP: Learning and memory in rats with an emphasis on the role of the amygdala. In: Aggleton JP (Ed.), The Amygdala. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1992.
115. Kling AS, Brothers LA: The amygdala and social behavior. In: Aggleton JP (Ed.), The Amygdala. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1992.
116. Quirk GJ. Armony JL, LeDoux JE: Fear conditioning enhances different temporal components of tone-evoked spike trains in auditory cortex and lateral amygdala. Neuron 19:613-624, 1997.
117. Rolls ET: Neurophysiology and functions of the primate amygdala. In: Aggleton JP (Ed.), The Amygdala. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1992.
118. Ursin H, Kaada BR: Functional localization within the amygdaloid complex in the cat. Electroencephalography Clin Neurophys 12:1-20, 1960.
119. Cahill L, McGaugh JL: Amygdaloid complex lesions differentially affect retention of tasks using appetitive and aversive reinforcement. Behav Neurosci, 104:532-543, 1990.
120. Hitchcock JM, Davis M: Efferent pathway of the amygdala involved in conditioned fear as measured with the fear-potentiated startle paradigm. Behav Neurosci 105:826-842, 1991.
121. Seldon NRW, Everitt BJ, Jarrard LE, Robbins TW: Complementary roles for the amygdala and hippocampus in aversive conditioning to explicit and contextual cues. Neurosci 42:335-350, 1991.
122. Chapman PF, Kairiss EW, Keenan CL, Brown TH: Long-term synaptic potentiation in the amygdala. Synapse 6:271-278, 1990.
123. Clugnet MC, LeDoux JE: Synaptic plasticity in fear conditioning circuits: Induetion of LTP in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala by stimulation of the medial geniculate body. J Neurosci 10:2818-2824, 1990.
124. Gloor P: The role of the human limbic system in in perception, memory, and affect. Lessons from temporal lobe epilepsy. In: Doane BK. Livingston KE. (Eds.), The Limbic System: Functional Organization and Clinical Disorder. New York: Raven Press, 1986.
125. Penfield W, Perot P: The brains record of auditory and visual experience. Brain 86:595-695.
126. Herman JL: Crime and memory. Bull Am Acad Psychiat Law 23:5-17, 1995.
127. Harvey MR, Herman JL: Amnesia, partial amnesia, and delayed recall among adult survivors of childhood trauma. Consc Cog 4:295-306, 1994.
128. van der Kolk B, Fisler R: Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study. J Traumatic Stress 8:505-525, 1995.