10 biomechanics of walking and running

Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 253-286

  Farley, Claire T ^a   Ferris, Daniel P ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; BIOMECHANICS; ENERGY METABOLISM; GAIT; GRAVITY; HUMAN; JOINT; KINETICS; MOVEMENT (PHYSIOLOGY); NASA DISCIPLINE MUSCULOSKELETAL; NON-NASA CENTER; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; RUNNING; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SKELETAL MUSCLE; TENDON; WALKING;

NASA DISCIPLINE MUSCULOSKELETAL; NON-NASA CENTER;

ANIMALS; BIOMECHANICS; ENERGY METABOLISM; GAIT; GRAVITATION; HUMANS; JOINTS; KINETICS; MOVEMENT; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; RUNNING; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; TENDONS; WALKING;

EID: 0031626855     PISSN: 00916331     EISSN: 15383008     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1249/00003677-199800260-00012     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. Alexander, R.M. Mechanics and scaling of terrestrial locomotion. T.J. Pedley (ed.). Scale Effects in Animal Locomotion. New York: Academic Press, 1977, pp. 91-110.
2. Alexander, R.M. Terrestrial Locomotion. R.M. Alexander and G. Goldspink (eds). Mechanics and Energetics of Animal Locomotion. London: Chapman Hall, 1977, pp. 168-203.
3. Alexander, R.M. Elastic Mechanisms in Animal Movement. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1988.
4. Alexander. R.M., Optimization and gaits in the locomotion of vertebrates. Physiol. Rev. 69:1199-1227, 1989.
5. Alexander, R.M. A model of bipedal locomotion on compliant legs. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Load. Riot. Sri. 15338:189-198, 1992.
6. Alexander, R.M., and Vernon, A. Mechanics of hopping by kangaroos (Macropodidae). J. Zoo.I. (London) 177:265-303. 1975.
7. Anderson, F.C., and M.G. Pandy. Storage and utilization of elastic strain energy during jumping. J Riomech. 26:141.3-1427, 1993.
8. Basmajian, J.V., and C. De Luca. Muscles Alive: Their Function Revealed by Electromyography. Baltimore:Williams & Wilkins, 1985.
9. Beuter, A., and F. Lalonde. Analysis of a phase transition in human locomotion using singularity theory. Neurosci. Res. Comm. 3:127-132. 1988.
10. Biewener, A.A., and R.V. Baudinette. In vivo muscle force and elastic energy storage during steady-speed hopping of tammar wallabies, (Macropus eugenii).J Exp. Biol. 198: 1829-1841, 1995.
11. Biewener, A A., and R. Blickhan. Kangaroo rat locomotion: design for elastic energv storage or acceleration?J Exp. Biol. 140:243-255, 1988.
12. Biewener, A.A., R. Blickhan, A.K. Perry, N.C. Heglund, and C.R. Taylor. Muscle forces during locomotion in kangaroo rats: force platform and tendon buckle measurements compared.J. Exp. Biol. 137:191-205, 1988.
13. Blickhan, R. The spring-mass model for running and hopping.J Biomech. 22:1217-1227, 1989.
14. Blickhan, R., and R.J. Full. Locomotion energetics of ghost crab. II. Mechanics of the center of mass during walking and running. J. Exp. Biol. 130:155-174, 1987.
15. Blickhan, R., and R.J. Full. Similarity in multilegged locomotion: bouncing like a niono-pode.J. Comp. Physiol..4173:509-517, 1993.
16. Bobbert, M.F., and A.J. Van Soest. Effects of muscle strengthening on vertical jump height: a simulation study. Med. Sn. Sports Exerc. 26:1012-1020, 1994.
17. Bobbert, M.F., andJ.P.Van Zandwijk. Dependence of human maximum jump height on moment arms of the bi-articular m. gastrocnemius: a simulation study. Hum. Mov. Sn. 13:697-716, 1994.
18. Bresler, B., and J.P. Frankel. The forces and moments in the leg during level walking. J. Appl, Mech. 72:27-36, 1950.
19. Cappozzo, A., F. Figura, and M. Marchetti. The interplay of muscular and external forces in human ambulation. J Biomech. 9:35-43, 1976.
20. Caputi, A.A., J.A. Hoffcr, and I.F. Pose. Velocity of ultrasound in active and passive tat medial gastrocnemius muscle. J. Biomech. 25:1067-1074, 1992.
21. Cavagna, G.A., P. Franzetti, and T. Fuchimoto. The mechanics of walking in children. J. Physiol. (London) 343:323-339, 1983.
22. Cavagna, G.A., N.C. Heglund, and C.R. Taylor. Mechanical work in terrestrial locomotion: two basic mechanisms for minimizing energy expenditure. Am. J. Pliysml. 233: R243-R261, 1977.
23. Cavagna, G.A., and M. Kancko. Mechanical work and efficiency in level walking and running.J. Physiol. (London) 268:647-681, 1977.
24. Cavagna, G.A., L. Komarek, and S. Mazzoleni. The mechanics of sprint running.J. Physiol. (London) 217:709-721, 1971.
25. Cavagna, G.A., F. I. Saibene, and R. Margaria. External work in walking.J Appl. Physiol. 18:1-9, 1969.
26. Lavagna, G.A., F.P. Saibene, and R. Margaria. Mechanical work in running. J. Appl. Physiol. 19:249-256. 1964.
27. Gavagna, G., A. Illhys, and A. Zamboni. The sources of external work in level walking and running J. Physiol. (London) 262:639-657, 1976.
28. Cavanagh, P.R., and M.A. Lafortune, Ground reaction forces in distance running.J. Biomech. 13:397-406, 1980.
29. Collins, J.J. The redundant nature of lot omotor optimization laws.J. Biomerh. 28:251-267, 1995.
30. Cook, T.M., K.P. Farrell, I.A. Carey, J.M. Gibbs, and G.E. Wiger. Effects of restricted knee flexion and walking speed on the vertical ground reaction force during gait.J Orlhop. Sports Phys. Ther. 25:236-244, 1997.
31. DcVita, P. The selection of a standard convention for analyzing gait data based on the analysis of relevant biomechanical factors. J Biomech. 27:501-508, 1994.
32. Diedrich, F.J., and W.H. Warren, Jr. Why change gaits-Dynamics of the walk-run transition. J.Exp Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 21:183-202, 1995.
33. F. ftman, H. Forces and energv changes in the leg during walking. Am. J. Physiol. 124: 339-356, 1939
34. EMnnan, I.I. The work done bmuscles in tunning. Am J. Physiol. 129:672-684, 1940.
35. Ettema, G.J., and P.A. Huijing. Properties of the tendinous structures and series elastic component of EDI. muscle-tendon complex of the rat. J Biomech. 22:1209-1215. 1989.
36. Farley, I.T., R. Rlickhan, J. Saito, and C.R. Taylor. Hopping frequency in humans: a test of flow springs set stride frequency in bouncing gaits.J. Appl Physiol. 71.2127-2132. 1991.
37. Farley, C.T., J. G. isheen, and T.A. McMahon Running springs: speed and animal size. J Exp. Biol. 185:71-86, 1993.
38. Farley, C.T., and O. Gonzalez. Leg stiffness and stride frequency in human running.J Biomech. 29:181-186, 1996
39. Farlev, C.T., and T. Ko. Two basic mechanisms in lizard locomotion. J. Exp. Biol 200: 2177-2188, 1997.
40. Farlev, C.T., and G.R. Taylor. A mechanical trigger for the trot-gallop transition in horses. Science 253:306-308, 1991.
41. Ferris, D.P., and C.T. Farley. Interaction of leg stiffness and surface stiffness during human hopping. J. Appl. Physiol 82:15-22, 1997.
42. Ferris, DP., M. Louie, and C.T. Farley. Adjustments in running mechanics to accommodate different surface stiffnesses. Physiologist 39:A59, 1996.
43. Fowler, EG R.J. Gregor, J.A. Hodgson, and R.R. Rov. Relationship between ankle muscle and joint kinetics during the stance phase of locomotion in the cat.J. Biomech. 26: 465-483. 1993.
44. Frigo, C. Determination of the muscle length during locomotion. E. Asmussen and K. Jorgensen (eds.). Biomechanics 17-A. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press, 1978. pp 355-360.
45. Fukashiro, S., P.V. Komi, M. Jarvinen, and M. Miyashita. Comparison between the directly measured Achilles tendon force and the tendon force calculated from the ankle joint moment during vertical jumps. Clin. Biomech. 8:25-30, 1993.
46. Fukashiro, S., P.V. Komi, M. jarvinen, and M. Miyashita. Invivo Achilles tendon loading during jumping in humans. Ear. J. Appl Physiol. 71:453-458, 1995.
47. Fukimaga, T., Y. Ichinose, M. lto, Y. Kawakami, and S. Fukashiro Determination of fascicle length and pennation in a contracting human muscle in vivo. J Appl Physiol 82-354-358, 1997.
48. Fukimaga, T. V. Kawakami. S. Kuno, K. Funato, and S. Fukashiro. Muscle architecture and function in humans.J Biomech. 30:457-463, 1997.
49. Full, R.J. Mechanics and energetics of terrestrial locomotion: bipeds to poiypeds. W. Wieset and E. Gnaiger (eds.). Energy Transformations in Cells and Animals. Stuttgart: Thieme. 1989, pp. 175-182.
50. Full, R.J., and M.S. Tu. Mechanics of six-legged runners.J. Exp. Biol. 148:129-146, 1990.
51. Full, R.J., and M.S. Tu. Mechanics oí a rapid running insect: two, four-and six-legged locomotion. J Exp. Biol 156:215-231, 1991.
52. Gauu, M., A. Chatterjee, A. Ruina, and M. Coleman. The simplest walking model: stability, complexity, and scaling.J. Biomech. Eng. In Press.
53. Gerritsen, K.G., A.J. van den Bogert, and B.M. Nigg. Direct dynamics simulation of the impact phase in lieeLtoe running. J. Biomech. 28:661-668, 1995.
54. Glos, D.L., D.L. Butler, E.S. Grood, and M.S. Levy. Invitro evaluation of an implantable force transducer (IFT) in a patellar tendon model. J. Biomeclf, Eng. 115:335-343, 1993.
55. Go-slow, G.E, Jr., R.M. Reinking, and D.G. Stuart. The cat step cycle: hind limb joint angles and muscle lengths during Unrestrained locomotion. J. Morph 141:1-41, 1973.
56. Gregor, R.J., and I.A. Abclew. Tendon force measurements and movement control: a review. Med. Sa. Sports Extra-26:1359-1372, 1994.
57. Gregor, R.J., P.V. Komi. R.C. Browning, and M. Jarvinen, A comparison of the triceps sttrae and residual muscle moments at the ankle during cycling.J. Biomech. 24:287-297; 1991.
58. Gregor, R.J., P.V. Komi, and M. Jarvinen. Achilles tendon forces during cycling. Int. J Sports Med. 8(Suppl. 1):9-11. 1987.
59. Grieve, D.W., S. Pheasant, and P.R. Cavanagh. Prediction of gastrocnemius length from knee and ankle posture: E. Asmusseri and K, Jorgensen (eds.). BiomechanicsIA. Baltimore; MD; University Park Press, 1978, pp. 405-412.
60. Griffiths, R.I. Ultrasound transit time gives direct measurement of muscle fiber length in vivo J Neurosa. Methods 21:159-165, 1987.
61. Griffiths, R.I. Shortening of muscle fibers during stretch of the active cat medial gastrocnemius mtiscle: the role of tendon compliance. J Physiol. (London) 436:219-236, 1991
62. He, J.P., R. Rrarn, and T.A. McMahon. Mechanics of running under simulated low gravity. J Appl. Physiol 71:863-870, 1991.
63. Heglund, N.C., G.A. Cavagna, and C.R. Taylor. Energetics and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion. 111. Energy changes of the centre of mass as a function of speed and body sizein birds and mammals.J. Éxp. Biol 97:41-56, 1982.
64. Herzog, W. Force-sharing among synergistic muscles: theoretical considerations and ex-§ I perimental approaches. Extra Spurt Sci. Rev. 24:173-202, 1996.
65. Herzog, W., J.M. Archambault, T.R. Leonard, and H.K. Nguyen. Evaluation of the im-plantable force transducer for chronic tendon-force recordings.J. Biomech. 29:103-109, 1996.
66. Herzog, W., E.M. Hasler, and T.R. Leonard. Insitu calibration of the implantable force transducer.J. Biomech. 29:1649-1652; 1996.
67. Herzog, W., and T.R. Leonard. Validation of optimization models that estimate the forces exerted by synergistic muscles. J. Biomech. 24(Suppl l):31-39; 1991.
68. Herzog, W., and T.R. Leonard. Soleus forces and soleus force potential during unrestrained cat locomotion.J. Biomech. 29:271-279, 1996.
69. Hodgson, J.A. The relationship between soleus and gastrocnemius muscle activity in conscious cats: a model for motor unit recruitment? J Physiol. (London) 337:553-562, 1983.
70. Holden, J.P., E.S. Grood, and J.F. Cummings Factors affecting sensitivity of a transducer for measuring anterior cruciate ligament force.J. Biomech. 28:99-102, 1995.
71. Holden, J.P, E.S. Grood, D.L. Korvick, J.F. Cummings, D.L. Butler, and D.I. BvlsliAustrow Invivo forces in the anterior cruciate ligament: direct measurements during walking and trotting in a quadruped.J. Biomech. 27:517-526, 1994.
72. Hovt, D.F., and G.R. Tavlor. Gait and energetics of locomotion in horses. Nature 292: 239-240, 1981.
73. Hovt, R.W, J.J. Knapik, J F. Lanza, B H, Jones, and J.S. StaabAmbulatory foot contact monitor to estimate metabolic cost of human locomotion J Appl Physiol 76:1818-1822, 1994.
74. Hreljac, A. Determinants oi the gait transition speed during human locomotion: kinetic factors. Gait Post. 1:217-223, 1993.
75. Hreljac, A. Preferred arid energetically optimal gait transition speeds in human locomotion. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 115:1158-1162, 1993.
76. Hreljac, A. Determinants of the gait transition speed during human locomotion: kinematic factors. J. Biomech. 28:669-677, 1995.
77. Hreljac, A. Effects of physical characteristics on the gait transition speed during human locomotion. Hum. Mini. Sd. 14:205-216, 1995.
78. Inman, V.T., H.J. Ralston, and F. Todd, Humanlocomotion J, Rose and J. G. Gamblefeds. Human Walking (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1994. pp. 2-22.
79. Jacobs, R., M.F. Bobbert, and G.J. van Ingen Schenau. Function of mono-and biarticular muscles in running. Med. Sd. Sports Exerc. 25:1163-1173, 1993.
80. Ker, R.F., M B. Bennett, S R. Bibbv, R.G. Kester, and R.M. Alexander. The spring in the arch of the human foot. Nature 325:147-149, 1987.
81. Komi, P.V. Relevance of in vivo force measurements to human biomechanics.J Biomech. 23(Suppl 1):23-34, 1990.
82. Komi, P.V., A. Belli, V. Huttunen, R. Bonnefoy, A. Geyssant, and J.R. Lacour. Opticfibre as a transducer of tendomuscular forces. Eur. j. Appl. Physiol. 72:278-280, 1996.
83. Komi, P.V., S. Fukashiro, and M. Jarvinen. Biomechanical loading of Achilles tendon during normal locomotion. Clin. Sports Med. 11:521-531, 1992.
84. Korvick, D.L., J.F. Cummings, E.S. Grood.J.P. Holden, S.M. Feder, and D.L. Buder. The use of an implantable force transducer to measure patellar tendon forces in goats. J. Biomech. 29:557-561, 1996.
85. Kram, R., A. Domingo, and D.P. Ferris. Effect of reduced gravity on the preferred walk-run transition speed.J. Exp. Biol. 200:821-826, 1997.
86. Lehman, S.L. Input identification depends on model complexity. J.M. Winters and S.L.Y. Woo (eds.). Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990. pp. 94-100.
87. Li Y., R.H. Crompton, R.M. Alexander, M.M. Gunther, and W.J. Wang. Characteristics of ground reaction forces in normal and chimpanzee-like bipedal walking by humans. Folia Pnmatologica 66:137-159, 1996.
88. Lieber R.L., M.E. Leonard, C.G. Brown, and C.L. Trestik. Frog semitendinosis tendon load-strain and stress-strain properties during passive loading. Am. J. Physiol. 261: C86-C92, 1991.
89. Loeb, G.E. Hard lessons in motor control from the mammalian spinal cord. Trends Neu-rosci. 10:108-113, 1987.
90. Loeb, G.E. Neural control oflocomotion: how do all the data fit together? Bioscience 39: 800-804. 1989.
91. Mann, R., and P. Sprague. A kinetic analysis of the ground leg during sprint running. Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport 51:334-348, 1980.
92. Mann, R.V. A kinetic analysis of sprinting. Med. Sri. Sports Exerc. 13:325-328, 1981.
93. Manter, J. The dynamics of quadrupedal walking.J. Exp. Biol. 15:522-540. 1938.
94. Margaria, R. Sulla fisiologia e specialmente sul consumo energetico della marcia e della corsa a vatic velocita ed inclinazioni del terreno. Atti Accad. Naz. Lincet Memone 7:299-368, 1938.
95. Margaria, R. Biomechanics and Energetics of Muscular Exercise. Oxford:Clarendon Press 1976.
96. McGeer, T. Passive dynamic walking. Int. J. Robotics. Res. 9:62-82, 1990.
97. McGeer, T. Principles of walking and running, R.M. Alexander fed. Mechanics of Animal Locomotion. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1992, pp. 113-139.
98. McGeer, T. Dynamics and control of bipedal locomotion.J. Theor Biol 163, 277-314 1993.
99. McMahon, I A., The mechanics of running: how does stiffness couple with speed?J. Biomech. 23(suppl. 1):65-78, 1990.
100. McMahon, T.A., V. Valiant, and E.C. Frederick. Groucho running. J Appl. Physiol. 62: 2326-23:17, 1987.
101. Merrier J.O. LeGallais M. Durand, C. Goudal, J.P. Micallef, and C. Prefaul. Energy expenditure and cardiorespiratory responses at the transition between walking and running. Fur f. Appl. Physiol 69:525-529, 1994.
102. Minetti V.K., L.P Ardigo, and F. Saibene. The transition between walking and running in humans: metabolic and mechanical aspects at different gradients. Acta. Physiol. Stand. 150:315-323, 1994.
103. Mochon, S., and I. A. McMahon. Ballistic walking. J. Biomech. 13:49-57. 1980.
104. Mochon, S., and T.A. McMahon. Ballistic walking: an improved model. Math. bwsu. 52: 241-260. 1980
105. Morrison, I. B. The mechanics of muscle function in locomotion. J Biomcrh. 3:431-451, 1970.
106. Muir, G.D., J.M. Gosline, and j.D. Sleeves. Ontogeny of bipedal locomotion: walking and mnning in the chick. J. Phxsiol. (I-onrlon) 493:589-601, 1996.
107. Narici, M.Y., T Binzoni, E. Hiltbrand, J. Fasel. F. Terrier, and P. Cerretelli. Invivo human gastrocnemius architec ture with changing joint angle at rest and during graded isometric contraction. J. Phxsiol. (London) 496:287-297. 1996.
108. Landy, M.G., and N. Bermc. Synthesis ol human walking: a planar model for single support. J. Biomech. 21:1053-1060, 1988.
109. Pandy, MiG., and N. Bermc. Quantitative assessment of gait determinants during single stance via a Theee-dimensional model-Pat t 1: normal gait. J. Biomech. 22:717-724, 1989.
110. Pandy, M.G., and N. Berme, Quantitative assessment of gait determinants during single stance via a Theee-dimensional model-Part 2: pathological gait. J. Biomech. 22:725-733, 1989.
111. Tandy, M.t.., and F.E. Zajac, Dependence of jumping performance on muscle strength, muscle-fiber speed, and tendon compliance. j.L. Stein, J.A. Ashton-Miller, and M.G.
112. M. Pandy (eds.). Issues in the Modeling and Control of Biomechanical Systems; 1989 ASME Winter Annual Meeting in San Francisco. New YorkiThe American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 1989. pp. 59-63.
113. Pandy, M G., ami F.E. Zajac. Optimal muscular coordination strategies for jumping. J. ofjtnmeih AA 1-10. 4991.
114. Tandy, M G., F.E. Zajac, E. Sim, and W.S. Levine. An optimal control model for maximum-height human jumping. J. Biomech. 23:1185-1198, 1990.
115. Pedotti, A. A study of motor coordination and neuromuscular activities in human locomotion. Biologrphy. 20:53-62, 1977.
116. Pedotti, A., and P. Crennas Individual strategies of muscle recruitment in complex natural movements J.M Winters and S.L.Y. Woo (eds). Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechaniit and Movement Organization. New York: Springer-Vetlag. 1990, pp. 542-549.
117. Pedotti A., K. Krishnan and I. Stark. Optimization of muscle-force sequencing in human locomotion. Math. Biosci. 38:57-76. 1978.
118. Perry, A.K., R. Blit khan, A.A. Biewener, N.C. I leglund, and C.R. Taylor. Preferred speeds in terrestrial vertebrates: are they equivalent? J. Exp. Biol. 137:207-219, 1988.
119. Piazza, S.J., and S.I. Delp. The influence of muscles on knee flexion during the swing phase oi gait. J. Biomech. 29:723-733, 1996.
120. Pierrvnowski, M.R. Analytic representation of muscle line ol action and geometry. P. Allard. l.A.F. Stokes, and J.P. Blanchi (eds.). Theee-Dimensional Analysis of Human Movement. Champaign. IT: Human Kinetics, 1995. pp. 215-256
121. Prilutsky, B.I., W. Herzog, and T.L. Allinger. Force-sharing between cat soleus and gastrocnemius muscles during walking: explanations based on electrical activity, properties, and kinematics.J Biomech. 27:1223-1235, 1994.
122. Prilutsky, B.I., W. Herzog, and T.L. Allinger. Mechanical power and work of cat soleus, gastrocnemius and plantaris muscles during locomotion: possible functional significance of muscle design and force patterns. J, Exp. Biol. 199:801-814. 1996.
123. Priluisky, B.I., W. Herzog, and T. Leonard Transfer of mechanical energy between ankle and knee joints bJgjistrocnemius and plantaris muscles during cat locomotion.J Biomech. 29:391-403, 1996.
124. Prilutskv, B.I., YV. Herzog, T. Leonard, and T.L. Allingef. Role of the muscle belly and tendon of soleus, gastrocnemius, and plantaris in mechanical energy absorption and generation during cat locomotion. J Biomech. 29:417-434, 1996.
125. Prilutskv, B.I., YV. Herzog, T. Leonard, and T.L. Allinger. Authors response.J Biomech. 30:309, 1997.
126. Raibert, M H. Lagged Robots That Balance. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, 1986.
127. Raibert, M.H. Trotting, pacing and bounding bv a quadruped robot.J Biomech. 23(suppl. l):79-98, 1990.
128. Raibert, M.H., and J.K. Hodgin, Legged robots, R.L. Beer, RE. Ritzmann, and T. McKenna (eds). Biological Neural Networks in Nevrnetholagy and Robotics. Boston:Academic Press, 1993, pp. 319-354.
129. Raibert, M.H., R.R Plavter, J.K. Hodgins, et al. Dynamically Stable legged Locomotion. Cambridge. MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1993.
130. Roberts, T.J., R.L. Marsh, P.G. YVeyand, and C.R. Taylor. Muscular force in running turkeys: the economy of minimizing work. Science 275:(1)13-1115. 1997.
131. Robertson, D.G., and D A. Winter. Mechanical energy generation, absorption and transfer amongst segments during walking. J Biomech. 13:845-854, 1980.
132. Saunders, J.B, V.T. Inman, and H D. Eberhart. The major determinants in normal and pathological gait. J Bone Jt. Surg. 35:543-558, 1953.
133. Scott, S H, and G.E. Locb. Mechanical properties of aponeurosis and tendon of the cat soleus muscle during whole-muscle isometric contractions. J Morph. 224:73-86, 1995.
134. Siegler, S.R. Seliktar, and Y.V. Hyman. Simulation of human gait with the aid of a simple mechanical model.J Biomech. 15:415-425, 1982.
135. Simonsen, E.B., P. Dvhre-Poulsen, Mroigt, P. Aagaard, and N. Fallentin. Mechanisms contributing to different joint moments observed during human walking. Scan.J. Med. Set. Sports 7:1-13,1997.
136. Smith, J.L., S.H. Chung, and R.F. Zernicke. Gait-related motor patterns and hindlimb kinetics for the tat trot and gallopp. Exp. Brain Res. 94:308-322, 1993.
137. Solomonow, M. Comment on Role of muscle belly and tendon of soleus gastrocnemius and plantaris in mechanical energy absorbtion and generation during cat locomotion. J. Biomech. 30:307-308, 1997.
138. Taylor, C.R. Relating mechanics and energetics during exercise. Adv. Vet. Sci. Comp. Med. 38A: 181-215, 1994.
139. Thorstensson, A., and H. Roberthson. Adaptations to changing speed in human locomotion: speed of transition between walking and running. Acta. Phssiol. Scand. 131:211-214, 1987.
140. van Ingen Schenau, G.J., M.F. Bobbert, and A.J. van Soest. The unique acdon of bi-articular muscles in leg extensions. J.M. Winters and S.L.Y. Woo(eds.). Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization. NewsYork: Springer-Verlag 1990 pp. 639-652.
141. van Soest, A.J., M.F. Bobbert, and G.J. van Ingen Schenau. A control strategy for the, execution of explosive movements from varying starting positions. J Neurophysiol. 71: 1390-1402, 1994.
142. van Soest, A.J., A.L. Schwab. M.F. Bobbert, and G.J. van Ingen Schenau, The influence of the biarticiilarity of the gastrocnemius muscle on vertical jumping achievement J Biomech, 26:1-8, 1993.
143. Vaughan, C.L. Are joint torques the Holy Grail of human gait analysis? Hum. Mov. Sd. 15:423-443, 1996.
144. Vukobratovic, M., A.A. Frank, and D. Juricic. On the stability of biped locomotion. IEFF. Trans. Binmed. Eng. 17:25-36, 1970.
145. Walmsley, B.J.A. Hodgson, and R.E. Burke. Forces produced In medial gastrocnemius and soleus muscles during locomotion in (reel) moving cats. J. Neurophysiol. 11: 1203-1216, 1978.
146. Winter, D.A. Overall principle of lower limb support during stance phase of gaii. J Biomech. 13:923-927, 1980.
147. Winter, D.A. Moments of force and mechanical power in jogging. J Biomnh. 16:91-97, 1983.
148. Winter, D.A. Kinematic and kinetic patterns in human gait: avalability and otnpensating effects. Hum. lov. SVi. 3:51-76, 1984.
149. Winter, D.A. Biomechanics and Motor Control uf Human Movement. New York: Wilt, 1990.
150. Winter, D.A. Human movement: a system-level approach. M.A Arbib (ed.). The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks; Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, 1995, pp. 172-477.
151. Winter, D.A., G.K. Ruder, and C.D. MacKinnon. Control of balance of upper body during gait.J M. Winters and S.L.Y. Woo I (eds.) Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechaniis mid Movement Organization. New York:SpringerAcrlag. 1990. pp. 534-541
152. Winters, J.M. Concepts in neuromuscular modeling. P.Allard, I.A.F. Stokes and j.P. Blanrhi (eds). Theee-Dimensional Analysis of Human Movement. Champaign. 11 Human Kinetics. 1995. pp. 257-292.
153. Winters, J.M. Smelting posture movement selection and synergies via a svnthcsiJed neuro-optimization framework. J.M. Winters and P.E. Crago (eds.). Biomechanics and Neural Control oj Movement. New York:Springer-Verlag, In Press.
154. Winters, J.M., and L. Stark. Analysis of fundamental human movement patterns Theough the use of in-depth antagonistic muscle models. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 32:826-839, 1985.
155. Yaguramaki, N., S. Nishizawa, K. Adachi. The relationship between posture and external force in walking. Anthropological Science 103:117-139. 1995.
156. Yamaguchi, G.T. Performing whole-body simulations of gait with 3-D, dynamic muse ulo-skeletal models. J.M Winters and S.L. Y. Woo (eds). Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization. New York:Springer-Verlag, 1990, pp. 663-679
157. Yamaguchi, G.T., M.G. Pandy, and F.E. Zajac. Dynamic musculoskeletal modeling of human locomotion: perspectives on model formulation and control. A.F., Patla (ed.). Adaptability of Human Gait. Amsterdam:North-Holland, 1991, pp. 205-240.
158. Zajac, F.E. Muscle and tendon: properties, models, scaling, and application to biomechanics and motor control. Crit. Riv. Biomed. Eng. 17:359-411, 1989.
159. Zajac, F.E. Muscle coordination of movement: a perspective.J Biomech. 26:109-124, 1993.
160. Zajac, F.E., and M E. Gordon, Determining muscle’s force and action in multi-articular movement. Exeri. Sport Sri. Rev. 17:187-230, 1989.
161. Zarrugh, M.Y. Kinematic prediction of in terse gment loads and power at the joints ol the leg in walking. J Biomech. 14:713-725, 1981.
162. Zemicke, R.F., and J.L. Smith Biomechanical insights into neural control of movement. L.B. Rowell andJ.T. Shepherd (eds.). Handbook of Physiology. Section 12. Exercise: Regulation and Integration of Multiple Systems. New York:Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 293-330.