Perspectives in clinical Alzheimer's disease research and the development of antidementia drugs

Journal of Neural Transmission, Supplement

Volumn , Issue 53, 1998, Pages 255-275

  Grundman, M ^a   Corey Bloom, J ^a   Thal, L J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

3 METHYL 5 (1 METHYL 2 PYRROLIDINYL)ISOXAZOLE; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; ANTIOXIDANT; CEREBROLYSIN; CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITOR; DONEPEZIL; ESTROGEN; GALANTAMINE; GLUCOCORTICOID; HEPTYLSTIGMINE TARTRATE; HUPERZINE A; IDEBENONE; INDOMETACIN; LETEPRINIM; METRIFONATE; MUSCARINIC M1 RECEPTOR AGONIST; NERVE GROWTH FACTOR; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHASE INHIBITOR; RIVASTIGMINE; SELEGILINE; TACRINE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; XANOMELINE; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; NOOTROPIC AGENT;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ARTICLE; CHOLINERGIC STIMULATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; NERVE DEGENERATION; NEUROPROTECTION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; AGED; HUMAN; METABOLISM; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW;

AGED; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS; ANTIOXIDANTS; CHOLINERGIC AGENTS; ESTROGENS; HUMANS; NOOTROPIC AGENTS;

EID: 0031596277     PISSN: 03036995     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-6467-9_23     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. Adams JD, Jr, Klaidman LK, Odunze IN, et al (1991) Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Brain levels of glutathione, glutathione disulfide, and vitamin E. Mol Chem Neuropathol 14: 213-226
2. Aisen PS (1997) Inflammation and Alzheimer's disease: mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Gerontology 43: 143-149
3. Aisen PS, Davis KL (1994) Inflammatory mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease: implications for therapy. Am J Psychiatry 151: 1105-1113
4. Akai F, Hiruma S, Sato T, et al (1992) Neurotrophic factor-like effect of FPF1070 on septal cholinergic neurons after transections of fimbria-fornix in the rat brain. Histol Histopathol 7: 213-221
5. Albrecht E, Hingel S, Crailsheim K, et al (1993) The effects of Cerebrolysin on survival and sprouting of neurons from cerebral hemispheres and from the brain stem of chick embryos in vitro. In: Nicolini M, Zatta PF, Coraine B (eds) Alzheimer's disease and related disorders. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 341-342
6. Anand R, Harnan R, Gharabawi G (1997) Therapeutic effects of Exelon in the treatment of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 48: A377
7. Andersen K, Launer LJ, Ott A, et al (1995) Do nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs decrease the risk for Alzheimer's disease? The Rotterdam Study. Neurology 45: 1441-1445
8. Arneric SP, Sullivan JP, Decker MW, et al (1995) Potential treatment of Alzheimer disease using cholinergic channel activators (ChCAs) with cognitive enhancement, anxiolytic-like, and cytoprotective properties. Alzh Dis Assoc Disord 9 [Suppl 2]: 50-61
9. Balazs L, Leon M (1994) Evidence of an oxidative challenge in the Alzheimer's brain. Neurochem Res 19: 1131-1137
10. Bartus RT, Dean RL, Flicker C (1987) Cholinergic psychopharmacology: an integration of human and animal research on memory. In: Meltzer HY (ed) Psychopharmacology: the third generation of progress. Raven Press, New York, pp 219-232
11. Beal MF, Hyman BT, Koroshetz W (1993) Do defects in mitochondrial energy metabolism underlie the pathology of neurodegenerative diseases? Trends Neurosci 16: 125-131
12. Behl C, Davis J, Cole GM, et al (1992) Vitamin E protects nerve cells from amyloid beta protein toxicity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 186: 944-950
13. Behl C, Davis JB, Lesley R, et al (1994) Hydrogen peroxide mediates amyloid beta protein toxicity. Cell 77: 817-827
14. Behl C, Widmann M, Trapp T, et al (1995) 17-beta estradiol protects neurons from oxidative stress-induced cell death in vitro. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 216: 473-482
15. Bodick NC, Offen WW, Levey AI, et al (1997) Effects of xanomeline, a selective muscarinic receptor agonist, on cognitive function and behavioral symptoms in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 54: 465-473
16. Breitner JC, Gau BA, Welsh KA, et al (1994) Inverse association of anti-inflammatory treatments and Alzheimer's disease: initial results of a co-twin control study. Neurology 44: 227-232
17. Breitner JC, Welsh KA, Helms MJ, et al (1995) Delayed onset of Alzheimer's disease with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory and histamine H2 blocking drugs. Neurobiol Aging 16: 523-530
18. Brugge K, Katzman R, Hill LR, et al (1992) Serological alpha 1-antichymotrypsin in Down's syndrome and Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 32: 193-197
19. Bruno V, Battaglia G, Copani A, et al (1994) Protective action of idebenone against excitotoxic degeneration in cultured cortical neurons. Neurosci Lett 178: 193-196
20. Buccafusco JJ, Jackson WJ, Terry AV, Jr, et al (1995) Improvement in performance of a delayed matching-to-sample task by monkeys following ABT-418: a novel cholinergic channel activator for memory enhancement. Psychopharmacology 120: 256-266
21. Butterfield DA, Hensley K, Harris M, et al (1994) beta-Amyloid peptide free radical fragments initiate synaptosomal lipoperoxidation in a sequence-specific fashion: implications to Alzheimer's disease. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 200: 710-715
22. Caldwell BM (1954) An evaluation of psychological effects of sex hormone administration in aged women. J Gerontol 9: 168-174
23. Campbell JE, Sullivan JP, Arnold W, et al (1996) Pharmacokinetic and safety studies on ABT-089; an orally active cholinergic channel modulator. Soc Neurosci 22: 1264
24. Chen L, Richardson JS, Caldwell JE, et al (1994) Regional brain activity of free radical defense enzymes in autopsy samples from patients with Alzheimer's disease and from nondemented controls. Int J Neurosci 75: 83-90
25. Connor JR, Snyder BS, Beard JL, et al (1992) Regional distribution of iron and iron-regulatory proteins in the brain in aging and Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci Res 31: 327-335
26. Copani A, Bruno V, Battaglia G, et al (1995) Activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors protects cultured neurons against apoptosis induced by beta-amyloid peptide. Mol Pharmacol 47: 890-897
27. Cummings J, Beiber F, Mas J, et al (1997) Metrifonate in Alzheimer's disease: results of a dose-finding study. In: Iqbal K, Winblad B, Nishimura T, et al (eds) Alzheimer's disease: biology, diagnosis and therapeutics. Wiley, Chichester, pp 665-669
28. Davies P, Maloney AJ (1976) Selective loss of central cholinergic neurons in Alzheimer's disease. Lancet ii: 1403
29. Davis RE, Doyle PD, Carroll RT, et al (1995) Cholinergic therapies for Alzheimer's disease. Palliative or disease altering? Arzneimittelforschung 45: 425-431
30. Decker MW, Curzon P, Brioni JD, et al (1994) Effects of ABT-418, a novel cholinergic channel ligand, on place learning in septal-lesioned rats. Eur J Pharmacol 261: 217-222
31. Decker MW, Bannon AW, Curzon P, et al (1996) Effects of ABT-089, a novel cholinergic channel modulator, on cognitive performance in rats and monkeys. Soc Neurosci 22: 1263
32. Donnelly-Roberts DL, Xue IC, Arneric SP, et al (1996) In vitro neuroprotective properties of the novel cholinergic channel activator (ChCA), ABT-418. Brain Res 719: 36-44
33. Dorje F, Levey AI, Brann MR (1991) Immunological detection of muscarinic receptor subtype proteins (m1-m5) in rabbit peripheral tissues. Mol Pharmacol 40: 459-462
34. Fisher A, Heldman E, Gurwitz D, et al (1996) M1 agonists for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Novel properties and clinical update. Ann NY Acad Sci 777: 189-196
35. Fuji K, Hiramatsu M, Kameyama T, et al (1993) Effects of repeated administration of propentofylline on memory impairment produced by basal forebrain lesion in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 236: 411-417
36. Furuta A, Price DL, Pardo CA, et al (1995) Localization of superoxide dismutases in Alzheimer's disease and Down's syndrome neocortex and hippocampus. Am J Pathol 146: 357-367
37. Gage FH, Armstrong DM, Williams LR, et al (1988) Morphological response of axotomized septal neurons to nerve growth factor. J Comp Neurol 269: 147-155
38. Glasky AJ, Kirat R, Middlemiss PJ, et al (1995) A novel purine derivative AIT-082 increases the synthesis of NGF, FGF-2 and NT-3 mRNA in astrocytes. Soc Neurosci Abstr 21: 295
39. Glasky AJ, Melchior CL, Pirzadeh B, et al (1994) Effect of AIT-082, a purine analog, on working memory in normal and aged mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 47: 325-329
40. Glasky AJ, Ritzmann RF, Rathbone MP, et al (1996) Neurotrophins, growth factors and mimetic agents as neuroprotectors in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. In: Becker R, Giacobini E (eds) Alzheimer disease: from molecular biology to therapy. Birkhäuser, Boston, pp 119-124
41. Good PF, Perl DP, Bierer LM, et al (1992) Selective accumulation of aluminum and iron in the neurofibrillary tangles of Alzheimer's disease: a laser microprobe (LAMMA) study. Ann Neurol 31: 286-292
42. Good PF, Werner P, Hsu A, et al (1996) Evidence of neuronal oxidative damage in Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 149: 21-28
43. Goodman Y, Mattson MP (1994) Staurosporine and K-252 compounds protect hippocampal neurons against amyloid beta-peptide toxicity and oxidative injury. Brain Res 650: 170-174
44. Grundke-Iqbal I, Fleming J, Tung YC, et al (1990) Ferritin is a component of the neuritic (senile) plaque in Alzheimer dementia. Acta Neuropathol 81: 105-110
45. Gupta-Bansal R, Frederickson RC, Brunden KR (1995) Proteoglycan-mediated inhibition of A beta proteolysis. A potential cause of senile plaque accumulation. J Biol Chem 270: 18666-18671
46. Gurwitz D, Raring R, Pinkas-Kramarski R, et al (1995) NGF-dependent neurotrophic-like effects of AF102B, an M1 muscarinic agonist, in PC12M1 cells. Neuroreport 6: 485-488
47. Haass C, Hung AY, Schlossmacher MG, et al (1993) beta-Amyloid peptide and a 3-kDa fragment are derived by distinct cellular mechanisms. J Biol Chem 268: 3021-3024
48. Hall ED, Andrus PK, Smith SL, et al (1997) Pyrrolopyrimidines: novel brain-penetrating antioxidants with neuroprotective activity in brain injury and ischemia models. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 281: 895-904
49. Harris KA, Oyler GA, Doolittle GM, et al (1993) Okadaic acid induces hyperphosphorylated forms of tau protein in human brain slices. Ann Neurol 33: 77-87
50. Hensley K, Carney JM, Mattson MP, et al (1994) A model for beta-amyloid aggregation and neurotoxicity based on free radical generation by the peptide: relevance to Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 3270-3274
51. Hensley K, Aksenova M, Carney JM, et al (1995) Amyloid beta-peptide spin trapping. I: Peptide enzyme toxicity is related to free radical spin trap reactivity. Neuroreport 6: 489-492
52. Higaki J, Quon D, Zhong Z, et al (1995) Inhibition of beta-amyloid formation identifies proteolytic precursors and subcellular site of catabolism. Neuron 14: 651-659
53. Higgins GA, Mufson EJ (1989) NGF receptor gene expression is decreased in the nucleus basalis in Alzheimer's disease. Exp Neurol 106: 222-236
54. Hirai K, Hayako H, Kato K, et al (1996) Idebenone protects against oxidative stress mediated neuronal cell death by coupling with the mitochondrial electron transport system. Soc Neurosci 22: 200
55. Honjo H, Ogino Y, Naitoh K, et al (1989) In vivo effects by estrone sulfate on the central nervous system-senile dementia (Alzheimer's type). J Steroid Biochem 34: 521-525
56. Jackson CV, Holland AJ, Williams CA, et al (1988) Vitamin E and Alzheimer's disease in subjects with Down's syndrome. J Ment Defic Res 32: 479-484
57. Jeandel C, Nicolas MB, Dubois F, et al (1989) Lipid peroxidation and free radical scavengers in Alzheimer's disease. Gerontology 35: 275-282
58. Jenkinson ML, Bliss MR, Brain AT, et al (1989) Rheumatoid arthritis and senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type [letter]. Br J Rheumatol 28: 86-88
59. Jones GM, Sahakian BJ, Levy R, et al (1992) Effects of acute subcutaneous nicotine on attention, information processing and short-term memory in Alzheimer's disease. Psychopharmacology 108: 485-494
60. Jonhagen M, Wahlund LO, Amberla K, et al (1996) Nerve growth factors as a treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 17
61. Kantor HI, Michael CM, Shore H (1973) Estrogen for older women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 116: 115-118
62. Kihara T, Shimohama S, Sawada H, et al (1997) Nicotinic receptor stimulation protects neurons against beta-amyloid toxicity. Ann Neurol 42: 159-163
63. Kisilevsky R, Lemieux LJ, Fraser PE, et al (1995) Arresting amyloidosis in vivo using small-molecule anionic sulphonates or sulphates: implications for Alzheimer's disease. Nat Med 1: 143-148
64. Knapp MJ, Knopman DS, Solomon PR, et al (1994) A 30-week randomized controlled trial of high-dose tacrine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. The Tacrine Study Group. JAMA 271: 985-991
65. Knopman D, Schneider L, Davis K, et al (1996) Long-term tacrine (Cognex) treatment: effects on nursing home placement and mortality, Tacrine Study Group. Neurology 47: 166-177
66. Knops J, Suomensaari S, Lee M, et al (1995) Cell-type and amyloid precursor protein-type specific inhibition of A beta release by bafilomycin A1, a selective inhibitor of vacuolar ATPases. J Biol Chem 270: 2419-2422
67. Kosik KS (1990) Tau protein and Alzheimer's disease. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2: 101-104
68. Kumar R, Orgogozo J (1997) Efficacy and safety of SB 202026 as a symptomatic treatment for Alzheimer's disease. In: Iqbal K, Winblad B, Nishimura T, et al (eds) Alzheimer's disease: biology, diagnosis and therapeutics. Wiley, Chichester, pp 677-685
69. Lakis J, Glasco S, Miller SW, et al (1995) Production of reactive oxygen species correlates with decreased cytochrome oxidase activity in Alzheimer's disease cybrids. Soc Neurosci Abstr 21: 979
70. Lazarovici P, Rasouly D, Friedman L, et al (1996) K252a and staurosporine microbial alkaloid toxins as prototype of neurotropic drugs. Adv Exp Med Biol 391: 367-377
71. Ledesma MD, Bonay P, Colaco C, et al (1994) Analysis of microtubule-associated protein tau glycation in paired helical filaments. J Biol Chem 269: 21614-21679
72. Lee PN (1994) Smoking and Alzheimer's disease: a review of the epidemiological evidence. Neuroepidemiology 13: 131-144
73. Levey AI, Kitt CA, Simonds WF, et al (1991) Identification and localization of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor proteins in brain with subtype-specific antibodies. J Neurosci 11: 3218-3226
74. Lorenzo A, Yankner BA (1994) Beta-amyloid neurotoxicity requires fibril formation and is inhibited by congo red. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 12243-12247
75. Ma J, Yee A, Brewer HB, Jr, et al (1994) Amyloid-associated proteins alpha 1-antichymotrypsin and apolipoprotein E promote assembly of Alzheimer beta-protein into filaments. Nature 372: 92-94
76. Ma J, Brewer HB, Jr, Potter H (1996) Alzheimer A beta neurotoxicity: promotion by antichymotrypsin, ApoE4; inhibition by A beta-related peptides. Neurobiol Aging 17: 773-780
77. Masferrer JL, Zweifel BS, Manning PT, et al (1994) Selective inhibition of inducible cyclooxygenase 2 in vivo is antiinfiammatory and nonulcerogenic. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 3228-3232
78. Matsubara E, Hirai S, Amari M, et al (1990) Alpha 1-antichymotrypsin as a possible biochemical marker for Alzheimer-type dementia. Ann Neurol 28: 561-567
79. McEwen BS, Alves SE, Bulloch K, et al (1997) Ovarian steroids and the brain: implications for cognition and aging. Neurology 48: S8-15
80. McGeer PL, McGeer EG (1995) The inflammatory response system of brain: implications for therapy of Alzheimer and other neurodegenerative diseases. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 21: 195-218
81. McGeer PL, McGeer E, Rogers J, et al (1990) Anti-inflammatory drugs and Alzheimer disease [letter]. Lancet 335: 1037
82. Mecocci P, MacGarvey U, Beal MF (1994) Oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA is increased in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 36: 747-751
83. Meda L, Cassatella MA, Szendrei GI, et al (1995) Activation of microglial cells by beta-amyloid protein and interferon-gamma. Nature 374: 647-650
84. Medina M, Garcia-Rocha M, Padilla R, et al (1996) Protein kinases involved in the phosphorylation of human tau protein in transfected COS-1 cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 1316: 43-50
85. Meier E, Frederiksen K, Nielsen M, et al (1997) Pharmacological in vitro characterization of the arecoline bioisostere, Lu 25-109-T, a muscarinic compound with M-1-agonistic and M-2/M-3-antagonistic properties. Drug Dev Res 40: 1-16
86. Merlini G, Ascari E, Amboldi N, et al (1995) Interaction of the anthracycline 4′-iodo-4′-deoxydoxorubicin with amyloid fibrils: inhibition of amyloidogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 2959-2963
87. Middlemiss PJ, Glasky AJ, Rathbone MP, et al (1995) AIT-082, a unique purine derivative, enhances nerve growth factor mediated neurite outgrowth from PC12 cells. Neurosci Lett 199: 131-134
88. Moller HJ, Maurer I, Saletu B (1994) Placebo-controlled trial of the xanthine derivative propentofylline in dementia. Pharmacopsychiatry 27: 159-165
89. Morrison RA, McGrath A, Davidson G, et al (1996) Low blood pressure in Down's syndrome, a link with Alzheimer's disease? Hypertension 28: 569-575
90. Multhaup G, Schlicksupp A, Hesse L, et al (1996) The amyloid precursor protein of Alzheimer's disease in the reduction of copper(II) to copper(I). Science 271: 1406-1409
91. Munch G, Taneli Y, Schraven E, et al (1994) The cognition-enhancing drug tenilsetam is an inhibitor of protein crosslinking by advanced glycosylation. J Neural Transm [PD Sect] 8: 193-208
92. Mutisya EM, Bowling AC, Beal MF (1994) Cortical cytochrome oxidase activity is reduced in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 63: 2179-2184
93. Nabeshima T, Nitta A, Hasegawa T (1993) Impairment of learning and memory and the accessory symptom in aged rat as senile dementia model (3). Oral administration of propentofylline produces recovery of reduced NGF content in the brain of aged rats. Yakubutsu Seishin Kodo 13: 89-95
94. Nitta A, Hasegawa T, Nabeshima T (1993) Oral administration of idebenone, a stimulator of NGF synthesis, recovers reduced NGF content in aged rat brain. Neurosci Lett 163: 219-222
95. Nitta A, Murakami Y, Furukawa Y, et al (1994) Oral administration of idebenone induces nerve growth factor in the brain and improves learning and memory in basal forebrain-lesioned rats. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 349: 401-407
96. Nordberg A (1992) Neuroreceptor changes in Alzheimer disease. Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev 4: 303-328
97. O'Banion MK, Winn VD, Young DA (1992) cDna cloning and functional activity of a glucocorticoid-regulated inflammatory cyclooxygenase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 4888-4892
98. Ohkura T, Isse K, Akazawa K, et al (1994) Evaluation of estrogen treatment in female patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type. Endocr J 41: 361-371
99. Oka A, Takashima S (1997) Induction of cyclo-oxygenase 2 in brains of patients with Down's syndrome and dementia of Alzheimer type: specific localization in affected neurones and axons. Neuroreport 8: 1161-1164
100. Paganini-Hill A, Henderson VW (1996) Estrogen replacement therapy and risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Intern Med 156: 2213-2217
101. Palmer AM, Burns MA (1994) Selective increase in lipid peroxidation in the inferior temporal cortex in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res 645: 338-342
102. Pappolla MA, Omar RA, Kim KS, et al (1992) Immunohistochemical evidence of antioxidant stress in Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 140: 621-628
103. Pappolla MA, Sos M, Omar RA, et al (1997) Melatonin prevents death of neuroblastoma cells exposed to the Alzheimer amyloid peptide. J Neurosci 17: 1683-1690
104. Parker WD, Jr, Filley CM, Parks JK (1990) Cytochrome oxidase deficiency in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 40: 1302-1303
105. Parker WD Jr, Parks J, Filley CM, et al (1994) Electron transport chain defects in Alzheimer's disease brain. Neurology 44: 1090-1096
106. Perrin R, Briancon S, Jeandel C, et al (1990) Blood activity of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase in Alzheimer's disease: a case-control study. Gerontology 36: 306-313
107. Perry EK, Tomlinson BE, Blessed G, et al (1978) Correlation of cholinergic abnormalities with senile plaques and mental test scores in senile dementia. Br Med J 2: 1457-1459
108. Pike CJ, Burdick D, Walencewicz AJ, et al (1993) Neurodegeneration induced by beta-amyloid peptides in vitro: the role of peptide assembly state. J Neurosci 13: 1676-1687
109. Pinkas-Kramarski R, Stein R, Lindenboim L, et al (1992) Growth factor-like effects mediated by muscarinic receptors in PC12M1 cells. J Neurochem 59: 2158-2166
110. Premkumar DR, Smith MA, Richey PL, et al (1995) Induction of heme oxygenase-1 mRNA and protein in neocortex and cerebral vessels in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 65: 1399-1402
111. Richardson JS, Zhou Y, Kumar U (1996) Free radicals in the neurotoxic actions of beta-amyloid. Ann NY Acad Sci 777: 362-367
112. Riggs JE (1996) The "protective" influence of cigarette smoking on Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Quagmire or opportunity for neuroepidemiology? Neurol Clin 14: 353-358
113. Rogers J, Kirby LC, Hempelman SR, et al (1993) Clinical trial of indomethacin in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 43: 1609-1611
114. Rogers SL, Friedhoff LT (1996) The efficacy and safety of donepezil in patients with Alzheimer's disease: results of a US multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Donepezil Study Group. Dementia 7: 293-303
115. Roher AE, Lowenson JD, Clarke S, et al (1993) Structural alterations in the peptide backbone of beta-amyloid core protein may account for its deposition and stability in Alzheimer's disease. J Biol Chem 268: 3072-3083
116. Rosen WG, Mohs RC, Davis KL (1984) A new rating scale for Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiatry 141: 1356-1364
117. Sadot E, Gurwitz D, Barg J, et al (1996) Activation of m1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor regulates tau phosphorylation in transfected PC12 cells. J Neurochem 66: 877-880
118. Sano M, Ernesto C, Thomas RG, et al (1997) A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study. N Engl J Med 336: 1216-1222
119. Schenk DB, Rydel RE, May P, et al (1995) Therapeutic approaches related to amyloid-beta peptide and Alzheimer's disease. J Med Chem 38: 4141-4154
120. Schipper HM, Cisse S, Stopa EG (1995) Expression of heme oxygenase-1 in the senescent and Alzheimer-diseased brain. Ann Neurol 37: 758-768
121. Schneider LS, Farlow MR, Henderson VW, et al (1996) Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on response to tacrine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 46: 1580-1584
122. Schulz JB, Henshaw DR, Siwek D, et al (1995a) Involvement of free radicals in excitotoxicity in vivo. J Neurochem 64: 2239-2247
123. Schulz JB, Matthews RT, Jenkins BG, et al (1995b) Blockade of neuronal nitric oxide synthase protects against excitotoxicity in vivo. J Neurosci 15: 8419-8429
124. Schweers O, Mandelkow EM, Biernat J, et al (1995) Oxidation of cysteine-322 in the repeat domain of microtubule-associated protein tau controls the in vitro assembly of paired helical filaments. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 8463-8467
125. Scott SA, Mufson EJ, Weingartner JA, et al (1995) Nerve growth factor in Alzheimer's disease: increased levels throughout the brain coupled with declines in nucleus basalis. J Neurosci 15: 6213-6221
126. Seibert K, Zhang Y, Leahy K, et al (1994) Pharmacological and biochemical demonstration of the role of cyclooxygenase 2 in inflammation and pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 12013-12017
127. Simmons LK, May PC, Tomaselli KJ, et al (1994) Secondary structure of amyloid beta peptide correlates with neurotoxic activity in vitro. Mol Pharmacol 45: 373-379
128. Smith MA, Kutty RK, Richey PL, et al (1994) Heme oxygenase-1 is associated with the neurofibrillary pathology of Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 145: 42-47
129. Smith MA, Rudnicka-Nawrot M, Richey PL, et al (1995) Carbonyl-related posttranslational modification of neurofilament protein in the neurofibrillary pathology of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 64: 2660-2666
130. Sramek JJ, Anand R, Wardle TS, et al (1996) Safety/tolerability trial of SDZ ENA 713 in patients with probable Alzheimer's disease. Life Sci 58: 1201-1207
131. Stewart WF, Kawas C, Corrada M, et al (1997) Risk of Alzheimer's disease and duration of NSAID use. Neurology 48: 626-632
132. Strada O, Hirsch EC, Javoy-Agid F, et al (1992) Does loss of nerve growth factor receptors precede loss of cholinergic neurons in Alzheimer's disease? An autoradiographic study in the human striatum and basal forebrain. J Neurosci 12: 4766-4774
133. Strittmatter WJ, Saunders AM, Schmechel D, et al (1993) Apolipoprotein E: high-avidity binding to beta-amyloid and increased frequency of type 4 allele in late-onset familial Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 1977-1981
134. Sullivan JP, Anderson DJ, Briggs CA, et al (1996) ABT-089: A potent and selective cholinergic channel modulator with neuroprotective properties. Soc Neurosci Abstr 22: 1263
135. Tang MX, Jacobs D, Stern Y, et al (1996) Effect of estrogen during menopause on risk and age at onset of Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 348: 429-432
136. Tennent GA, Lovat LB, Pepys MB (1995) Serum amyloid P component prevents proteolysis of the amyloid fibrils of Alzheimer disease and systemic amyloidosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 4299-4303
137. Thai LJ, Fuld PA, Masur DM, et al (1983) Oral physostigmine and lecithin improve memory in Alzheimer disease. Ann Neurol 13: 491-496
138. Thal LJ, Schwartz G, Sano M, et al (1996) A multicenter double-blind study of controlled-release physostigmine for the treatment of symptoms secondary to Alzheimer's disease. Physostigmine Study Group. Neurology 47: 1389-1395
139. Thomas T, Thomas G, McLendon C, et al (1996) beta-Amyloid-mediated vasoactivity and vascular endothelial damage. Nature 380: 168-171
140. Tocco G, Freire-Moar J, Schreiber SS, et al (1997) Maturational regulation and regional induction of cyclooxygenase-2 in rat brain: implications for Alzheimer's disease. Exp Neurol 144: 339-349
141. Tomiyama T, Shoji A, Kataoka K, et al (1996) Inhibition of amyloid beta protein aggregation and neurotoxicity by rifampicin. Its possible function as a hydroxyl radical scavenger. J Biol Chem 271: 6839-6844
142. Troetel WM, Imbimbo BP (1997) Overview of the development of epatstigmine, a long-acting cholinesterase inhibitor. In: Iqbal K, Winblad B, Nishimura T, et al (eds) Alzheimer's disease: biology, diagnosis and therapeutics. Wiley, Chichester, pp 671-676
143. Tojanowski JQ, Lee VM (1995) Phosphorylation of paired helical filament tau in Alzheimer's disease neurofibrillary lesions: focusing on phosphatases. FASEB J 9: 1570-1576
144. Vane J (1994) Towards a better aspirin [news; comment]. Nature 367: 215-216
145. Vitek MP, Bhattacharya K, Glendening JM, et al (1994) Advanced glycation end products contribute to amyloidosis in Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 4766-4770
146. Webster S, Glabe C, Rogers J (1995) Multivalent binding of complement protein C1Q to the amyloid beta-peptide (A beta) promotes the nucleation phase of A beta aggregation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 217: 869-875
147. Whitehouse PJ, Price DL, Clark AW, et al (1981) Alzheimer disease: evidence for selective loss of cholinergic neurons in the nucleus basalis. Ann Neurol 10: 122-126
148. Wieland E, Schutz E, Armstrong VW, et al (1995) Idebenone protects hepatic microsomes against oxygen radical-mediated damage in organ preservation solutions. Transplantation 60: 444-451
149. Wilcock G, Wilkinson D (1997) Galanthamine hydrobromide: interim results of a group comparative, placebo-controlled study of efficacy and safety in patients with a diagnosis of senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. In: Iqbal K, Winblad B, Nishimura T, et al (eds) Alzheimer's disease: biology, diagnosis and therapeutics. Wiley, Chichester, pp 661-664
150. Winkler J, Ramirez GA, Kuhn HG, et al (1997) Reversible Schwann cell hyperplasia and sprouting of sensory and sympathetic neurites after intraventricular administration of nerve growth factor. Ann Neurol 41: 82-93
151. Xu SS, Gao ZX, Weng Z, et al (1995) Efficacy of tablet huperzine-A on memory, cognition, and behavior in Alzheimer's disease. Chung Kuo Yao Li Hsueh Pao 16: 391-395
152. Yamagata K, Andreasson KI, Kaufmann WE, et al (1993) Expression of a mitogen-inducible cyclooxygenase in brain neurons: regulation by synaptic activity and glucocorticoids. Neuron 11: 371-386
153. Yan SD, Chen X, Schmidt AM, et al (1994) Glycated tau protein in Alzheimer disease: a mechanism for induction of oxidant stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 7787-7791