Preserving the information content of species: Genetic diversity, phylogeny, and conservation worth

Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics

Volumn 28, Issue , 1997, Pages 243-268

  Crozier, R H ^a  

^a LA TROBE UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Conservation philosophy; Conservation worth; Ecological economics; Gene number; Genetic distance; Genetic diversity; Genomic information content; Molecular phylogeny; Species richness

Indexed keywords

CONSERVATION WORTH; GENETIC DIVERSITY; PHYLOGENY; SPECIES;

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); CELLULAR ORGANISMS;

EID: 0031468030     PISSN: 00664162     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.243     Document Type: Review

References (211)

1. Adelman JP, Bond CT, Douglass J, Herbert E. 1987. Two mammalian genes are transcribed from opposite strands of the same DNA locus. Science 235:1514-17
2. Ahern LD, Brown PR, Robertson P, Seebeck JH. 1985. Application of a taxon priority system to some Victorian vertebrate fauna. Tech. Rep. 42. Arthur Rylah Inst. Environ. Res., Victoria
3. Altschul SF, Lipman DJ. 1990. Equal animals. Nature 348:493-94
4. Antequera F, Bird A. 1993. Number of CpG islands and genes in human and mouse. Prof. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:11995-99
5. Avise JC. 1994. Molecular Markers, Natural History and Evolution. New York: Chapman & Hall
6. Avise JC. 1995. Mitochondrial DNA polymorphism and a connection between genetics and demography of relevance to conservation. Conserv. Biol. 9:686-90
7. Avise JC, Hamrick JL, eds. 1996. Conservation Genetics: Case Histories from Nature. New York: Chapman & Hall
8. Baker JT, Bell JD, Murphy PT. 1996. Australian deliberations on access to its terrestrial and marine biodiversity. J. Ethnopharmacol. 51:229-35
9. Balmford A, Green MJB, Murray MG. 1996. Using higher-taxon richness as a surrogate for species richness: 1. Regional tests. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 263:1267-74
10. Balmford A, Jayasuriya AHM, Green MJB. 1996. Using higher-taxon richness as a surrogate for species richness. II. Local applications. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 263:1571-75
11. Barbier EB, Brown G, Dalmazzone S, Folke C, Gadgil M, et al. 1995. The economic value of biodiversity. In Global Biodiversity Assessment, ed. VH Heywood, RT Watson, pp. 822-914. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
12. Barker JSF. 1994. Animal breeding and conservation genetics. See Ref. 109a, pp. 381-95
13. Barrowclough GF. 1992. Systematics, biodiversity, and conservation biology. In Systematics, Ecology, and the Biodiversity Crisis, ed. N Eldredge, pp. 121-43. New York: Columbia Univ. Press
14. Baverstock PR, Joseph L, Degnan S. 1993. Units of management in biological conservation. In Conservation Biology in Australia and Oceania, ed. C Moritz, J Kikkawa, pp. 287-93. Chipping Norton, NSW, Aust: Surrey Beatty & Sons
15. Beattie AJ. 1995. Why conserve biodiversity? In Conserving Biodiversity. Threats and Solutions, ed. RA Bradstock, TD Auld, DA Keith, RT Kingsford, D Lunney, DP Silversten, pp. 3-10. Chipping Norton, NSW, Aust: Surrey Beatty & Sons
16. Beccaloni GW, Gaston KJ. 1995. Predicting the species richness of neotropical forest butterflies: Ithomiinae (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae) as indicators. Biol. Conserv. 71:77-86
17. Begon M, Harper JL, Townsend CR. 1990. Ecology. Individuals, Populations and Communities. Boston: Blackwell. 2nd ed.
18. Benson DA, Boguski M, Lipman DJ, Ostell J. 1996. GenBank. Nucleic Acids Res. 24:1-5
19. Berchtold M, Konig H. 1996. Phylogenetic analysis and in situ identification of uncultivated spirochetes from the hindgut of the termite Mastotermes darwiniensis. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 19:66-73
20. Bird A, Tweedie S. 1995. Transcriptional noise and the evolution of gene number. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 349:249-53
21. Bird AP. 1995. Gene number, noise reduction and biological complexity. Trends Genet. 11:94-100
22. Booth DE. 1992. The economics and ethics of old-growth forests. Environ. Ethics 14:43-62
23. Borris RP. 1996. Natural products research: perspectives from a major pharmaceutical company. J. Ethnopharmacol. 51:29-38
24. Bowen BW, Meylan AB, Ross JP, Limpus CJ, Balazs GH, Avise JC. 1992. Global population structure and natural history of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) in terms of matriarchal phylogeny. Evolution 46:865-81
25. Bradshaw HD, Wilbert SM, Otto KG, Schemske DW. 1995. Genetic mapping of floral traits associated with reproductive isolation in monkeyflowers (Mimulus). Nature 376:762-65
26. Brookfield JFY. 1996. Forced and natural molecular evolution. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11:353-54
27. Brown AHD. 1978. Isozymes, plant population genetic structure and genetic conservation. Theor. Appl. Genet. 52:145-57
28. Brown AHD, Schoen DJ. 1994. Optimal sampling strategies for core collections of plant genetic resources. See Ref. 109a, pp. 358-70
29. Bruce KD, Osborn AM, Pearson AJ, Strike P, Ritchie DA. 1995. Genetic diversity within mer genes directly amplified from communities of noncultivated soil and sediment bacteria. Mol. Ecol. 4:605-12
30. Burgman MA, Ferson S, Akakaya HR. 1993. Risk Assessment in Conservation Biology. London: Chapman & Hall
31. Callicott JB. 1994. Conservation values and ethics. In Principles of Conservation Biology, ed. GK Meff, CR Carroll, pp. 24-49. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer
32. Carroll SB. 1995. Homeotic genes and the evolution of arthropods and chordates. Nature 376:479-85
33. Cavalier-Smith T. 1985. The Evolution of Genome Size. New York: Wiley
34. Cherry LM, Case SM, Kunkel JG, Wyles JS, Wilson AC. 1982. Body shape metrics and organismal evolution. Evolution 36:914-33
35. Chiej R. 1984. The Macdonald Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. London: Macdonald
36. Clark AG, Wang L. 1994. Comparative evolutionary analysis of metabolism in nine Drosophila species. Evolution 48:1230-43
37. Conway MS. 1994. Why molecular biology needs palaeontology. Development Suppl. S:1-13
38. Conway MS. 1995. Nailing the lophoporates. Nature 375:365-66
39. Cox PA, Balick MJ. 1994. The ethnobotanical approach to drug discovery. Sci. Am. 270(6):60-65
40. Cracraft J. 1983. Species concepts and speciation analysis. Curr. Ornithol. 1:159-87
41. Crosland MWJ, Crozier RH. 1986. Myrmecia pilosula: an ant with one pair of chromosomes. Science 231:1278
42. Crozier RH. 1992. Genetic diversity and the agony of choice. Biol. Conserv. 61:11-15
43. Crozier RH, Dobric N, Imai HT, Graur D, Cornuet J-M, Taylor RW. 1995. Mitochondrial-DNA sequence evidence on the phylogeny of Australian Jack-jumper ants of the Myrmecia pilosula complex. Mol. Phylogeny Evol. 4:20-30
44. Crozier RH, Kusmierski RM. 1994. Genetic distances and the setting of conservation priorities. See Ref. 109a, pp. 227-37
45. Curnutt J, Lockwood J, Lu H-K, Nott P, Russell G. 1994. Hotspots and species diversity. Nature 367:326-27
46. Daugherty CH, Cree A, Hay JM, Thompson MB. 1990. Neglected taxonomy and continuing extinctions of tuatara (Sphenodon). Nature 347:177-79
47. Dixon PI, ed. 1992. Population Genetics and Its Application to Fisheries Management. Kensington: Cent. Mar. Sci., Univ. NSW
48. Doolittle RF, Feng DF, Tsang S, Cho G, Little E. 1996. Determining divergence times of the major kingdoms of living organisms with a protein clock. Science 271:470-77
49. Doolittle WF, Brown JR. 1994. Tempo, mode, the progenote, and the universal root. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 6721-28
50. Ecker DJ, Crooke ST. 1995. Combinatorial drug discovery: which methods will produce the greatest value? Bio-Technology 13:351-60
51. Efron B, Halloran E, Holmes S. 1996. Bootstrap confidence levels for phylogenetic trees. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:7085-90
52. Eggleton P, Williams PH, Gaston KJ. 1994. Explaining global termite diversity: productivity or history. Biodivers. Conserv. 3:318-30
53. Embley TM, Hirt RP, Williams DM. 1994. Biodiversity at the molecular level: the domains, kingdoms and phyla of life. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 345:21-33
54. Erwin TL. 1991. An evolutionary basis for conservation strategies. Science 253:750-52
55. Evans LT. 1993. Crop Evolution, Adaptation and Yield. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
56. Fagen RM. 1978. Behavioural catalogue acquisition and completeness: validation of logarithmic regression and curve-fitting methods. Anim. Behav. 26:961-62
57. Faith DP. 1992. Conservation evaluation and phylogenetic diversity. Biol. Conserv. 61:1-10
58. Faith DP. 1993 Biodiversity and systematics: the use and misuse of divergence information in assessing taxonomic diversity. Pac. Conserv. Biol. 1:53-57
59. Faith DP. 1994. Genetic diversity and taxonomic priorities for conservation. Biol. Conserv. 68:69-74
60. Faith DP. 1994. Phylogenetic diversity: a general framework for the prediction of feature diversity. See Ref. 68a, pp. 251-68
61. Faith DP. 1994. Phylogenetic pattern and the quantification of organismal biodiversity Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 345:45-58
62. Faith DP, Walker PA. 1996. How do indicator groups provide information about the relative biodiversity of different sets of areas?: on hotspots, complementarity and pattern-based approaches. Biodivers. Lett. 3:18-25
63. Faith DP, Walker PA. 1996. Integrating conservation and development: effective trade-offs between biodiversity and cost in the selection of protected areas. Biodivers. Conserv. 5:431-46
64. Felsenstein J. 1985. Confidence limits on phytogenies: an approach using the bootstrap. Evolution 39:783-91
65. Felsenstein J. 1990. PHYLIP Manual. Version 3.3. Berkeley: Univ. Herbarium
66. Feynman RP. 1996. Feynman Lectures on Computation. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
67. Flavell RB. 1991. Molecular biology and genetic conservation programmes. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 43:73-80
68. Fleischmann RD, Adams MD, White O, Clayton RA, Kirkness EF, et al. 1995. Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of Haemophilus influence Rd. Science 269:496-512
69. 68a. Forey PI, Humphries CJ, Vane-Wright RI, eds. 1994. Systematics and Conservation Evaluation. Oxford, UK: Clarendon
70. Frankham R. 1995. Conservation genetics. Annu. Rev. Genet. 29:305-27
71. Fraser CM, Gocayne JD, White O, Adams MD, Clayton RA, et al. 1995. The minimal gene complement of Mycoplasma genitalium. Science 270:397-403
72. Frey AH. 1995. The internet biologist. FASEB J. 9:1245-46
73. Gaston KJ. 1996. Species richness: measure and measurement. In Biodiversity. A Biology of Numbers and Difference, ed. KJ Gaston, pp. 77-113. Oxford, UK: Blackwell
74. Gaston KJ, Blackburn TM. 1995. Mapping biodiversity using surrogates for species richness: macro-scales and New World birds. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 262:335-41
75. Gaston KJ, Blackburn TM. 1996. The tropics as a museum of biological diversity: analysis of the New World avifauna. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 263:63-68
76. Gaston KJ, Williams PH. 1993. Mapping the world's species: the higher taxon approach. Biodivers. Lett. 1:2-8
77. Giovannoni SJ, Rappé MS, Vergin KL, Adair NL. 1996. 16S rRNA genes reveal stratified open ocean bacterioplankton populations related to the green nonsulfur bacteria. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:7979-84
78. Givnish TJ. 1994. Does diversity beget stability? Nature 371:113-14
79. González-Reyes A, Elliott H, St. Johnston D. 1995. Polarization of both major body axes in Drosophila by gurken-torpedo signalling. Nature 375:654-58
80. Gould SJ. 1994. The evolution of life on the earth. Sci. Am. 271:85-91
81. Green P. 1994. Ancient conserved regions in gene sequences. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 4:404-12
82. Groombridge B, ed. 1992. Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth's Living Resources. London: Chapman & Hall
83. Halanych KM. 1996. Convergence in the feeding apparatuses of lophophorates and pterobranch hemichordates revealed by 18S rDNA: an interpretation. Biol. Bull. 190:1-5
84. Hall SRG, Bradley DG. 1995. Conserving livestock breed biodiversity. Trends Ecol. Evol. 10:267-70
85. Hardin G. 1993. Living within Limits: Ecology, Economics, and Population Taboos. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
86. Hillis DM, Moritz C. eds. 1990. Molecular Systematics. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer
87. Holben WE, Harris D. 1995. DNA-based monitoring of total bacterial community structure in environmental samples. Mol. Ecol. 4:627-31
88. Holden C. 1989. Entomologists wane as insects wax. Science 246:754-56
89. Holland PWH, GarciaFernandez J, Williams NA, Sidow A. 1994. Gene duplications and the origins of vertebrate development. Development Suppl. S:125-33
90. Holley SA, Jackson PD, Sasai Y, Lu B, De Robertis EM, et al. 1995. A conserved system for dorsal-ventral patterning in insects and vertebrates involving sog and chordin. Nature 376:249-53
91. Hopper SD, Coates DJ. 1990. Conservation of genetic resources in Australia's flora and fauna. Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust. 16:567-77
92. Hori H, Osawa S. 1987. Origin and evolution of organisms as deduced from 5S ribosomal RNA sequences. Mol. Biol. Evol. 4:445-72
93. Humphries CJ, Richardson PM. 1980. Hennig's method and phytochemistry. In Chemosystematics: Principles and Practice, ed. FA Bisby, JG Vaughan, CA Wright, pp. 353-78. London: Academic
94. Humphries CJ, Williams PH, Vane-Wright RI. 1995. Measuring biodiversity value for conservation. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 26:93-111
95. Iwu MM. 1996. Biodiversity prospecting in Nigeria: seeking equity and reciprocity in intellectual property rights through partnership arrangements and capacity building. J. Ethnopharmacol. 51:209-19
96. Iwu MM. 1996. Implementing the biodiversity treaty: how to make international cooperative agreements work. Trends Biotechnol. 14:78-83
97. Jones T. 1994. A biosystematic crisis and a global response to resolve it. Bull. Entomol. Res. 84:443-46
98. Joseph L, Moritz C, Hugall A. 1995. Molecular support for vicariance as a source of diversity in rainforest. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 260:177-82
99. Kadereit JW. 1994. Molecules and morphology, phylogenetics and genetics. Bot. Acta 107:369-73
100. Kauffman SA. 1991. Antichaos and adaptation. Sci. Am. 265:64-70
101. Kellert SR. 1993. The biological basis for human values of nature. In The Biophilia Hypothesis, ed. SR Kellert, EO Wilson, pp. 42-69. Washington, DC: Island Books
102. Kitching RL. 1994. Biodiversity: political responsibilities and agendas for research and conservation. Pac. Conserv. Biol. 1:279-83
103. Koonin EV, Tatusov RL, Rudd KE. 1995. Sequence similarity analysis of Escherichia coli proteins: functional and evolutionary implications. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:11921-25
104. Krajewski C. 1991. Phylogeny and diversity. Science 254:918-19
105. Krajewski C. 1994. Phylogenetic measures of biodiversity: a comparison and critique. Biol. Conserv. 69:33-39
106. Kusmierski RM, Borgia G, Uy A, Crozier RH. 1997. Labile evolution of display traits in bowerbirds indicate reduced effects of phylogenetic constraint. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B. 264:307-13
107. Legge JT, Roush R, DeSalle R, Vogler AP, May B. 1996. Genetic criteria for establishing evolutionarily significant units in Cryan's Buckmoth. Conserv. Biol. 10:85-98
108. Li W-H, Graur D. 1991. Fundamentals of Molecular Evolution. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer
109. Linder HP. 1995. Setting conservation priorities: the importance of endemism and phylogeny in the southern African orchid genus Herschelia. Conserv. Biol. 9:585-95
110. Linder HP, Midgley JJ. 1994. Taxonomy, compositional biodiversity and functional biodiversity of fynbos. S. Afr. J. Sci. 90:329-33
111. 109a. Loeschcke V, Tomiuk J, Jain SK, eds. 1994. Conservation Genetics. Basel: Birkhäser Verlag
112. Loomis WH. 1988. Four Billion Years. An Essay on the Evolution of Genes and Organisms. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer
113. Mackey LY, Winnepenninckx B, Dewachter R, Backeljau T, Emschermann P, Garey JR. 1996. 18S rRNA suggests that Entoprocta are protostomes, unrelated to Ectoprocta. J. Mol. Evol. 42:552-59
114. Mahunnah RLA, Mshigeni KE. 1996. Tanzania's policy on biodiversity prospecting and drug discovery programs. J. Ethnopharmacol. 51:221-28
115. Mallet J. 1995. A species definition for the modern synthesis. Trends Ecol. Evol. 10:294-99
116. Mallet J. 1996. The genetics of biological diversity: from varieties to species. See Ref. 72, pp. 13-53
117. Mangel M, Talbot LM, Meffe GK, Agardy MT, Alverson DL, et al. 1996. Principles for the conservation of wild living resources. Ecol. Appl. 6:338-62
118. May RM. 1990. Taxonomy as destiny. Nature 347:129-30
119. May RM. 1994. Conceptual aspects of the quantification of the extent of biological diversity. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 345:13-20
120. May RM, Nee S. 1995. The species alias problem. Nature 378:447-48
121. Maynard Smith J, Szathmáry E. 1995. The Major Transitions in Evolution. New York: Freeman
122. Mayr E. 1963. Animal Species and Evolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
123. McShea DW. 1996. Metazoan complexity and evolution: Is there a trend? Evolution 50:477-92
124. Metrick A, Weitzman ML. 1996. Patterns of behavior in endangered species preservation. Land Econ. 72:1-16
125. Metsäntutkimuslaitos (Finn. For. Res. Inst.). 1996. Metsätilastollinen Vuosikirja (Statistical Yearbook of Forestry). Helsinki: Metsäntutkimuslaitos
126. Moore WS. 1995. Inferring phylogenies from mtDNA variation: mitochondrial-gene trees versus nuclear-gene trees. Evolution 49:718-26
127. Moritz C. 1994. Defining 'evolutionarily significant units' for conservation. Trends Ecol. Evol. 9:373-75
128. Moritz C. 1995. Uses of molecular phylogenies for conservation. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 349:113-18
129. Moritz C, Faith DP. 1997. Comparative phylogeography and the identification of genetically divergent areas for conservation. Mol. Ecol. Submitted
130. Moritz C, Lavery S, Slade R. 1995. Using allele frequency and phylogeny to define units for conservation and management. Am. Fish. Soc. Svmp. 17:249-62
131. Morowitz HJ. 1991. Balancing species preservation and economic considerations. Science 253:752-54
132. Myers N. 1996. Environmental services of biodiversity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:2764-69
133. Naeem S, Thompson LJ, Lawler SP, Lawton JH, Woodfin RM. 1994. Declining biodiversity can alter the performance of ecosystems. Nature 368:734-37
134. Naeem S, Thompson LJ, Lawler SP, Lawton JH, Woodfin RM. 1995. Empirical evidence that declining species diversity may alter the performance of terrestrial ecosystems. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 347:249-62
135. Nei M. 1987. Molecular Evolutionary Genetics. New York: Columbia Univ. Press
136. New TR. 1993. Angels on a pin: dimensions of the crisis in invertebrate conservation. Am. Zool. 33:623-30
137. Nixon KC, Wheeler QD. 1992. Measures of phylogenetic diversity. In Extinction and Phylogeny, ed. MJ Novacek, QD Wheeler, pp. 216-34. New York: Columbia Univ. Press
138. Norton BG. 1987. Why Preserve Natural Variety? Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
139. Nozick R. 1984. Anarchy, State, and Utopia. New York: Basic Books
140. Ohkuma M, Kudo T. 1996. Phylogenetic diversity of the intestinal bacterial community in the termite Reticulitermes speratus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:461-68
141. Ohkuma M, Noda S, Usami R, Horikoshi K, Kudo T. 1996. Diversity of nitrogen fixation genes in the symbiotic intestinal microflora of the termite Reticulitermes speratus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:2747-52
142. Ohno S. 1984. Birth of a unique enzyme from an alternative reading frame of the preexisted, internally repetitious coding sequence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81:2421-25
143. Oliver I, Beattie AJ. 1993. A possible method of rapid assessment of biodiversity. Conserv. Biol. 7:562-68
144. Oliver I, Beattie AJ. 1994. A possible method for the rapid assessment of biodiversity. See Ref. 68a, pp. 133-36
145. Orr HA. 1995 The population genetics of speciation: the evolution of hybrid incompatibilities. Genetics 139:1805-13
146. Pace NR, Olsen GJ, Woese CR. 1986. Ribosomal RNA phylogeny and the primary lines of evolutionary descent. Cell 45:325-26
147. Pace NR, Stahl DA, Lane DJ, Olsen GJ. 1985. Analyzing natural microbial populations by rRNA sequences. Am. Soc. Microbiol. News 51:4-12
148. Pamilo P. 1990. Statistical tests of phenograms based on genetic distances. Evolution 44:689-97
149. Pamilo P, Nei M. 1988. Relationships between gene trees and species trees. Mol. Biol. Evol. 5:568-83
150. Paterson AM, Wallis GP, Gray RD. 1995. Penguins, petrels, and parsimony: Does cladistic analysis of behavior reflect seabird phylogeny? Evolution 49: 974-89
151. Patterson C, Williams DM, Humphries CJ. 1993. Congruence between molecular and morphological phylogenies. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 24:153-88
152. Pearce D, Moran D. 1994. The Economic Value of Biodiversity: London, UK: Earthscan
153. Pearson DL. 1994 Selecting indicator taxa for the quantitative assessment of biodiversity. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 345:75-79
154. Pedersen K, Arlinger J, Hallbeck L, Pettersson C. 1996. Diversity and distribution of subterranean bacteria in groundwater at Oklo in Gabon, Africa, as determined by 16S rRN A gene sequencing. Mol. Ecol. 5:427-36
155. Pedrós-Alió C. 1993. Diversity of bacterioplankton. Trends Ecol. Evol. 8:86-90
156. Perrot-Minnot MJ, Guo LR, Werren JH. 1996. Single and double infections with Wolbachia in the parasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis: effects on compatibility. Genetics 143:961-72
157. Pilbeam D. 1996. Genetic and morphological records of the Hominoidea and Hominid origins: a synthesis. Mol. Phylogeny Evol. 5:155-68
158. Pomeroy D. 1993. Centers of high biodiversity in Africa. Conserv. Biol. 7:901-7
159. Porteous LA, Armstrong JL, Seidler RJ, Watrud LS. 1994. An effective method to extract DNA from environmental samples for polymerase chain reaction amplification and DNA fingerprint analysis. Curr. Microbiol. 29:301-7
160. Potthast T. 1996. Inventing biodiversity: genetics, evolution, and environmental ethics. Biol. Zentralbl. 115:177-88
161. Prendergast JR, Quinn RM, Lawton JH, Eversham BC, Gibbons DW. 1993. Rare species, the coincidence of diversity hotspots and conservation strategies. Nature 365:335-37
162. Principe PP. 1995. Monetizing the pharmacological benefits of plants. In Medicinal Resources of the Tropical Forest: Biodiversity and Its Importance to Human Health, ed. MJ Balick, E Elisabetsky, S Laird, pp. 191-218. New York: Columbia Univ. Press
163. Rawls J. 1971. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
164. Reid WV. 1996. Gene co-ops and the biotrade: translating genetic resource riehts into sustainable development. J. Ethnopharmacol. 51:75-92
165. Richardson BJ. 1994. The industrialization of scientific information. See Ref. 68a, pp. 123-31
166. Risatti JB, Capman WC, Stahl DA. 1994. Community structure of a microbial mat: the phylogenetic dimension. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:10173-77
167. Rossetto M, Weaver PK, Dixon KW. 1995. Use of RAPD analysis in devising conservation strategies for the rare and endangered Grevillea scapigera (Proteaceae). Mol. Ecol. 4:321-29
168. Russo CAM, Takezaki N, Nei M. 1995. Molecular phytogeny and divergence times of drosophilid species. Mol. Biol. Evol. 12:391-404
169. Saitou N, Nei M. 1987. The neighbor-joining method: a new method for reconstructing phylogenies. Mol. Biol. Evol. 4:406-25
170. Sarich VM, Wilson AC. 1967. Immunological time scale for hominoid evolution. Science 158:1200-3
171. Shenk MA, Steele RE. 1993. A molecular snapshot of the metazoan Eve. Trends Biochem. Sci. 18:459-63
172. Shomer B, Harper RAL, Cameron GN. 1996. Information services of the European Bioinformatics Institute. In Computer Methods for Macromolecular Sequence Analysis, ed. RF Doolittle, pp. 3-27 San Diego, CA: Academic
173. Sibley CG, Ahlquist JE. 1990. Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study of Molecular Evolution. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
174. Soejarto DD. 1996. Biodiversity prospecting and benefit-sharing: perspectives from the field. J. Ethnopharmacol. 51:1-15
175. Solow A, Polasky S, Broadus J. 1993. On the measurement of biological diversity. J. Environ. Econ. Manage. 24:60-68
176. Stiassny MLJ. 1992. Phylogenetic analysis and the role of systematics in the biodiversity crisis. In Systematics, Ecology and the Biodiversity Crisis, ed. N Eldredge, pp. 109-20. New York: Columbia Univ. Press
177. Strahan R. 1989. Conservation priorities: a simple system. In The Conservation of Threatened Species and Their Habitats, ed. M Hicks, P Elser, pp. 101-5. Canberra: Aust. Comm. IUCN
178. Szathmáry E, Maynard Smith J. 1995. The major evolutionary transitions. Nature 374:227-32
179. Telford MJ, Thomas RH. 1995. Demise of the Atelocerata? Nature 376:123-24
180. Templeton AR. 1977. Analysis of head shape differences between two inter-fertile species of Hawaiian Drosophila. Evolution 31:630-41
181. Thompson JN. 1987. Symbiont-induced speciation. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 32:385-93
182. Tiefenbrunner W. 1995. Selektion und Mutation aus informatistheoretischer Sicht-Grenzen der Erhaltbarkeit von genetischer Information. Z. Naturforsch. Teil C 50:883-94
183. Tilman D. 1996. Biodiversity, population versus ecosystem stability. Ecology 77:350-63
184. Tilman D, Downing JA. 1994. Biodiversity and stability in grasslands. Nature 367:363-65
185. Tilman D, Wedin D, Knops J. 1996. Productivity and sustainability influenced by biodiversity in grassland ecosystems. Nature 379:718-20
186. Torsvik V, Goksøyr J, Daae FL. 1990. High density in DNA of soil bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:782-87
187. Turner DM. 1996. Natural product source material use in the pharmaceutical industry: the Glaxo experience. J. Ethnopharmacol. 51:39-43
188. Vane-Wright RI, Humphries CJ, Williams PH. 1991. What to protect? Systematics and the agony of choice. Biol. Conserv. 55:235-54
189. Vogler AP. 1994. Extinction and the formation of phylogenetic lineages: diagnosing units of conservation management in the tiger beetle Cicindela dorsalis. In Molecular Ecology and Evolution: Approaches and Applications, ed. B Schierwater, B Streit, GP Wagner, R DeSalle, pp. 261-73. Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag
190. Vogler AP, DeSalle R. 1994. Diagnosing units of conservation management. Conserv. Biol. 8:354-63
191. Vogler AP, Knisley CB, Glueck SBJ, Hill JM, DeSalle R. 1993. Using molecular and ecological data to diagnose endangered populations of the puritan tiger beetle Cicindela puritana. Mol. Ecol. 2:375-83
192. Walker PA, Faith DP. 1995. DIVERSITY-PD: Procedures for conservation evaluation based on phylogenetic diversity. Biodivers. Lett. 2:132-39
193. Wallis GP. 1994. Population genetics and conservation in New Zealand: a hierarchical synthesis and recommendations for the 1990s. J. R. Soc. NZ24:143-60
194. Weidner S, Arnold W, Puhler A. 1996. Diversity of uncultured microorganisms associated with the seagrass Halophila stipulacea estimated by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of PCR-amplified 16S rRNA genes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:766-71
195. Weitzman ML. 1992. On diversity. Q. J. Econ. 107:363-405
196. Weitzman ML. 1993. What to preserve? An application of diversity theory to crane preservation. Q. J. Econ. 108:157-83
197. Weitzman ML. 1994. On the environmental discount rate. J. Environ. Econ. Manage. 26:200-9
198. Williams PH, Gaston KJ. 1994. Measuring more of biodiversity: Can higher-taxon richness predict wholesale species richness? Biol. Conserv. 67:211-17
199. Williams PH, Gaston KJ, Humphries CJ. 1994. Do conservationists and molecular biologists value differences between organisms in the same way? Biodivers. Lett. 2:67-78
200. Williams PH, Humphries C. 1994. Biodiversity, taxonomic relatedness and endemism in conservation. See Ref. 68a, pp. 269-87
201. Williams PH, Humphries CJ. 1996. Comparing character diversity among biotas. See Ref. 72, pp. 54-76
202. Williams PH, Humphries CJ, Gaston KJ. 1994. Centres of seed-plant diversity: the family way. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 256:67-70
203. Williams PH, Humphries CJ, Vane-Wright RI. 1991. Measuring biodiversity: taxonomic relatedness for conservation priorities. Aust. Syst. Bot. 4:665-79
204. Williams PH, Vane-Wright RI, Humphries CJ. 1993. Measuring biodiversity for choosing conservation areas. In Hymenoptera and Biodiversity, ed. J LeSalle, ID Gauld, pp. 309-28. Wallingford, UK: CAB Int.
205. Wilson A, Kunkel J, Wyles J. 1984. Morphological distance: an encounter between two perspectives in evolutionary biology. Evolution 38:1156-59
206. Wilson EO. 1984. Biophilia: The Human Bond with Other Species. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
207. Wilson EO. 1992. The Diversity of Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
208. Wilson EO, Eisner T, Briggs WR, Dickerson RE, Metzenberg RL, et al. 1978. Life on Earth. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer. 2nd ed.
209. Witting L, Loeschcke V. 1995. The optimization of biodiversity conservation. Biol. Conserv. 71:205-7
210. Witting L, McCarthy MA, Loeschcke V. 1994. Multi-species risk analysis, species evaluation and biodiversity conservation. See Ref. 109a, pp. 239-49
211. Wray GA, Levinton JS, Shapiro LH. 1996. Molecular evidence for deep Precambrian divergences among metazoan phyla. Science 274:568-73