Sport in urbanizing America: A historical review

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 23, Issue 6, 1997, Pages 675-708

  Hardy, Stephen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

SOCIAL CHANGE; SPORT; TWENTIETH CENTURY; URBAN HISTORY;

NORTH AMERICA;

EID: 0031403645     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614429702300601     Document Type: Review

References (201)

1. Ed Hinton, "Not So Fast," Sports Illustrated, (March 13, 1995), 44.
2. Descriptions of early sport are taken from Stephen Hardy, "Sport," in Peter Stearns, ed., Encyclopedia of Social History (New York, 1994), 713-4. See also William Baker, Sports in the Western World (Urbana, 1988); Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York, 1978).
3. Descriptions of early sport are taken from Stephen Hardy, "Sport," in Peter Stearns, ed., Encyclopedia of Social History (New York, 1994), 713-4. See also William Baker, Sports in the Western World (Urbana, 1988); Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York, 1978).
4. Descriptions of early sport are taken from Stephen Hardy, "Sport," in Peter Stearns, ed., Encyclopedia of Social History (New York, 1994), 713-4. See also William Baker, Sports in the Western World (Urbana, 1988); Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York, 1978).
5. For a recent review, see Steven Riess, "The New Sport History," Reviews in American History 18 (1990), 311-25.
6. Frederick Paxson, "The Rise of Sports," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 4 (September 1917), 143-68; John Higham, "The Reorientation of American Culture," in H. Weiss, ed., The Origins of Modern Consciousness (Detroit, 1965) 25-48; Norbert Elias and Eric Dunning, The Quest For Excitement (Oxford, 1986). For an attack on parts of the "modernization" and "displacement" theories, see Claude S. Fischer, "Changes in Leisure Activities, 1890-1940," Journal of Social History (Spring 1994), 453-7.
7. Frederick Paxson, "The Rise of Sports," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 4 (September 1917), 143-68; John Higham, "The Reorientation of American Culture," in H. Weiss, ed., The Origins of Modern Consciousness (Detroit, 1965) 25-48; Norbert Elias and Eric Dunning, The Quest For Excitement (Oxford, 1986). For an attack on parts of the "modernization" and "displacement" theories, see Claude S. Fischer, "Changes in Leisure Activities, 1890-1940," Journal of Social History (Spring 1994), 453-7.
8. Frederick Paxson, "The Rise of Sports," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 4 (September 1917), 143-68; John Higham, "The Reorientation of American Culture," in H. Weiss, ed., The Origins of Modern Consciousness (Detroit, 1965) 25-48; Norbert Elias and Eric Dunning, The Quest For Excitement (Oxford, 1986). For an attack on parts of the "modernization" and "displacement" theories, see Claude S. Fischer, "Changes in Leisure Activities, 1890-1940," Journal of Social History (Spring 1994), 453-7.
9. Frederick Paxson, "The Rise of Sports," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 4 (September 1917), 143-68; John Higham, "The Reorientation of American Culture," in H. Weiss, ed., The Origins of Modern Consciousness (Detroit, 1965) 25-48; Norbert Elias and Eric Dunning, The Quest For Excitement (Oxford, 1986). For an attack on parts of the "modernization" and "displacement" theories, see Claude S. Fischer, "Changes in Leisure Activities, 1890-1940," Journal of Social History (Spring 1994), 453-7.
10. David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993), 3-5. For the working class, see Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986).
11. David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993), 3-5. For the working class, see Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986).
12. Melvin Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-1870 (Urbana, 1986); S. Hardy, How Boston Played: Sport, Recreation, and Community (Boston, 1982). For other early case studies, see Stephen Hardy, "The City and the Rise of American Sport," Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 9 (1981), 183-219.
13. Melvin Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-1870 (Urbana, 1986); S. Hardy, How Boston Played: Sport, Recreation, and Community (Boston, 1982). For other early case studies, see Stephen Hardy, "The City and the Rise of American Sport," Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 9 (1981), 183-219.
14. Melvin Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-1870 (Urbana, 1986); S. Hardy, How Boston Played: Sport, Recreation, and Community (Boston, 1982). For other early case studies, see Stephen Hardy, "The City and the Rise of American Sport," Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 9 (1981), 183-219.
15. Steven Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Culture and the Rise of Sport (Urbana, 1989). Riess has recently condensed his arguments in Sport in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Wheeling, IL, 1995). Sam Bass Warner reviews some recent books on public space in "The Public Settings of Everyday Life," Journal of Urban History 20 (November 1993), 133-41. An excellent book, with a British focus, is John Bale, Sport, Space, and the City (London, 1993).
16. Steven Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Culture and the Rise of Sport (Urbana, 1989). Riess has recently condensed his arguments in Sport in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Wheeling, IL, 1995). Sam Bass Warner reviews some recent books on public space in "The Public Settings of Everyday Life," Journal of Urban History 20 (November 1993), 133-41. An excellent book, with a British focus, is John Bale, Sport, Space, and the City (London, 1993).
17. Steven Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Culture and the Rise of Sport (Urbana, 1989). Riess has recently condensed his arguments in Sport in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Wheeling, IL, 1995). Sam Bass Warner reviews some recent books on public space in "The Public Settings of Everyday Life," Journal of Urban History 20 (November 1993), 133-41. An excellent book, with a British focus, is John Bale, Sport, Space, and the City (London, 1993).
18. Steven Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Culture and the Rise of Sport (Urbana, 1989). Riess has recently condensed his arguments in Sport in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Wheeling, IL, 1995). Sam Bass Warner reviews some recent books on public space in "The Public Settings of Everyday Life," Journal of Urban History 20 (November 1993), 133-41. An excellent book, with a British focus, is John Bale, Sport, Space, and the City (London, 1993).
19. Jack Berryman, "John Stuart Skinner and the American Farmer, 1819-1829," Associates NAL Today 1 (1976), 11-32; Harvey Green, Fit For America: Health, Fitness, Sport, and American Society (Baltimore, 1986).
20. Jack Berryman, "John Stuart Skinner and the American Farmer, 1819-1829," Associates NAL Today 1 (1976), 11-32; Harvey Green, Fit For America: Health, Fitness, Sport, and American Society (Baltimore, 1986).
21. Colleen Sheehy, "American Angling: The Rise of Urbanism and the Romance of the Rod and Reel," in Kathryn Grover, ed., Hard at Play: Leisure in America, 1840-1940 (Amherst, 1992), 77-92.
22. Roger Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia and Ours: On the Past and Future of the Black City in America (New York, 1991), 107; E. John B. Allen, From Skisport to Skiing: One Hundred Years of an American Sport, 1840-1940 (Amherst, 1993), 107. For a middle-class "escape" community, see Glenn Uminowicz, "Recreation in a Christian America: Ocean Grove and Asbury Park, New Jersey, 1869-1914," in Hard at Play, 8-39.
23. Roger Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia and Ours: On the Past and Future of the Black City in America (New York, 1991), 107; E. John B. Allen, From Skisport to Skiing: One Hundred Years of an American Sport, 1840-1940 (Amherst, 1993), 107. For a middle-class "escape" community, see Glenn Uminowicz, "Recreation in a Christian America: Ocean Grove and Asbury Park, New Jersey, 1869-1914," in Hard at Play, 8-39.
24. Roger Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia and Ours: On the Past and Future of the Black City in America (New York, 1991), 107; E. John B. Allen, From Skisport to Skiing: One Hundred Years of an American Sport, 1840-1940 (Amherst, 1993), 107. For a middle-class "escape" community, see Glenn Uminowicz, "Recreation in a Christian America: Ocean Grove and Asbury Park, New Jersey, 1869-1914," in Hard at Play, 8-39.
25. John W. Ward, "The Meaning of Lindbergh's Flight," in Joseph Kwait and Mary Turpie, eds., Studies in American Culture (Minneapolis, 1960); Ben Rader, American Sports (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1990), 131-50; Jeffrey Sammons, Beyond the Ring: The Role of Boxing in American Society (Urbana, 1988), 235.
26. John W. Ward, "The Meaning of Lindbergh's Flight," in Joseph Kwait and Mary Turpie, eds., Studies in American Culture (Minneapolis, 1960); Ben Rader, American Sports (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1990), 131-50; Jeffrey Sammons, Beyond the Ring: The Role of Boxing in American Society (Urbana, 1988), 235.
27. John W. Ward, "The Meaning of Lindbergh's Flight," in Joseph Kwait and Mary Turpie, eds., Studies in American Culture (Minneapolis, 1960); Ben Rader, American Sports (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1990), 131-50; Jeffrey Sammons, Beyond the Ring: The Role of Boxing in American Society (Urbana, 1988), 235.
28. Steven Gelber, "Working at Playing: The Culture of the Workplace and the Rise of Baseball," Journal of Social History 16 (June 1983), 3-20; Melvin Adelman, "Baseball, Business and the Workplace: Gelber's Thesis Reexamined," Journal of Social History 23 (Winter 1989), 283-302.
29. Steven Gelber, "Working at Playing: The Culture of the Workplace and the Rise of Baseball," Journal of Social History 16 (June 1983), 3-20; Melvin Adelman, "Baseball, Business and the Workplace: Gelber's Thesis Reexamined," Journal of Social History 23 (Winter 1989), 283-302.
30. Elliott Gorn, "The Manassa Mauler and the Fighting Marine: An Interpretation of the Dempsey-Tunney Fights," Journal of American Studies 19 (1985), 27-47. See also Ronald Story, "The Greening of Sport: Jackson, Dempsey, and Industrial America," Reviews in American History 8 (1980), 386-92.
31. Elliott Gorn, "The Manassa Mauler and the Fighting Marine: An Interpretation of the Dempsey-Tunney Fights," Journal of American Studies 19 (1985), 27-47. See also Ronald Story, "The Greening of Sport: Jackson, Dempsey, and Industrial America," Reviews in American History 8 (1980), 386-92.
32. Elliott Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 76; Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia, 323; for earlier literature, see Hardy, "The City and the Rise"; Adelman, A Sporting Time; Rader, American Sports; George Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports: Baseball and Cricket, 1838-72 (Urbana, 1989). Two recent articles that look closely at clubs, class, and sports are Thomas Jable, "Social Class and the Sport of Cricket in Philadelphia, 1850-1880," Journal of Sport History 18 (September 1991), 205-23; and Richard Moss, "Sport and Social Status: Golf and the Making of the Country Club in the United States, 1882-1920," International Journal of the History of Sport 10 (April 1993), 93-100. Stuart Blumin considers sports clubs briefly in Emergence of the Middle Class (New York, 1989).
33. Elliott Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 76; Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia, 323; for earlier literature, see Hardy, "The City and the Rise"; Adelman, A Sporting Time; Rader, American Sports; George Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports: Baseball and Cricket, 1838-72 (Urbana, 1989). Two recent articles that look closely at clubs, class, and sports are Thomas Jable, "Social Class and the Sport of Cricket in Philadelphia, 1850-1880," Journal of Sport History 18 (September 1991), 205-23; and Richard Moss, "Sport and Social Status: Golf and the Making of the Country Club in the United States, 1882-1920," International Journal of the History of Sport 10 (April 1993), 93-100. Stuart Blumin considers sports clubs briefly in Emergence of the Middle Class (New York, 1989).
34. Elliott Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 76; Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia, 323; for earlier literature, see Hardy, "The City and the Rise"; Adelman, A Sporting Time; Rader, American Sports; George Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports: Baseball and Cricket, 1838-72 (Urbana, 1989). Two recent articles that look closely at clubs, class, and sports are Thomas Jable, "Social Class and the Sport of Cricket in Philadelphia, 1850-1880," Journal of Sport History 18 (September 1991), 205-23; and Richard Moss, "Sport and Social Status: Golf and the Making of the Country Club in the United States, 1882-1920," International Journal of the History of Sport 10 (April 1993), 93-100. Stuart Blumin considers sports clubs briefly in Emergence of the Middle Class (New York, 1989).
35. Elliott Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 76; Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia, 323; for earlier literature, see Hardy, "The City and the Rise"; Adelman, A Sporting Time; Rader, American Sports; George Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports: Baseball and Cricket, 1838-72 (Urbana, 1989). Two recent articles that look closely at clubs, class, and sports are Thomas Jable, "Social Class and the Sport of Cricket in Philadelphia, 1850-1880," Journal of Sport History 18 (September 1991), 205-23; and Richard Moss, "Sport and Social Status: Golf and the Making of the Country Club in the United States, 1882-1920," International Journal of the History of Sport 10 (April 1993), 93-100. Stuart Blumin considers sports clubs briefly in Emergence of the Middle Class (New York, 1989).
36. Elliott Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 76; Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia, 323; for earlier literature, see Hardy, "The City and the Rise"; Adelman, A Sporting Time; Rader, American Sports; George Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports: Baseball and Cricket, 1838-72 (Urbana, 1989). Two recent articles that look closely at clubs, class, and sports are Thomas Jable, "Social Class and the Sport of Cricket in Philadelphia, 1850-1880," Journal of Sport History 18 (September 1991), 205-23; and Richard Moss, "Sport and Social Status: Golf and the Making of the Country Club in the United States, 1882-1920," International Journal of the History of Sport 10 (April 1993), 93-100. Stuart Blumin considers sports clubs briefly in Emergence of the Middle Class (New York, 1989).
37. Elliott Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 76; Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia, 323; for earlier literature, see Hardy, "The City and the Rise"; Adelman, A Sporting Time; Rader, American Sports; George Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports: Baseball and Cricket, 1838-72 (Urbana, 1989). Two recent articles that look closely at clubs, class, and sports are Thomas Jable, "Social Class and the Sport of Cricket in Philadelphia, 1850-1880," Journal of Sport History 18 (September 1991), 205-23; and Richard Moss, "Sport and Social Status: Golf and the Making of the Country Club in the United States, 1882-1920," International Journal of the History of Sport 10 (April 1993), 93-100. Stuart Blumin considers sports clubs briefly in Emergence of the Middle Class (New York, 1989).
38. Elliott Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 76; Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia, 323; for earlier literature, see Hardy, "The City and the Rise"; Adelman, A Sporting Time; Rader, American Sports; George Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports: Baseball and Cricket, 1838-72 (Urbana, 1989). Two recent articles that look closely at clubs, class, and sports are Thomas Jable, "Social Class and the Sport of Cricket in Philadelphia, 1850-1880," Journal of Sport History 18 (September 1991), 205-23; and Richard Moss, "Sport and Social Status: Golf and the Making of the Country Club in the United States, 1882-1920," International Journal of the History of Sport 10 (April 1993), 93-100. Stuart Blumin considers sports clubs briefly in Emergence of the Middle Class (New York, 1989).
39. Elliott Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 76; Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia, 323; for earlier literature, see Hardy, "The City and the Rise"; Adelman, A Sporting Time; Rader, American Sports; George Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports: Baseball and Cricket, 1838-72 (Urbana, 1989). Two recent articles that look closely at clubs, class, and sports are Thomas Jable, "Social Class and the Sport of Cricket in Philadelphia, 1850-1880," Journal of Sport History 18 (September 1991), 205-23; and Richard Moss, "Sport and Social Status: Golf and the Making of the Country Club in the United States, 1882-1920," International Journal of the History of Sport 10 (April 1993), 93-100. Stuart Blumin considers sports clubs briefly in Emergence of the Middle Class (New York, 1989).
40. Elliott Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 76; Lane, William Dorsey's Philadelphia, 323; for earlier literature, see Hardy, "The City and the Rise"; Adelman, A Sporting Time; Rader, American Sports; George Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports: Baseball and Cricket, 1838-72 (Urbana, 1989). Two recent articles that look closely at clubs, class, and sports are Thomas Jable, "Social Class and the Sport of Cricket in Philadelphia, 1850-1880," Journal of Sport History 18 (September 1991), 205-23; and Richard Moss, "Sport and Social Status: Golf and the Making of the Country Club in the United States, 1882-1920," International Journal of the History of Sport 10 (April 1993), 93-100. Stuart Blumin considers sports clubs briefly in Emergence of the Middle Class (New York, 1989).
41. Peter Levine, From Ellis Island to Ebbets Field: Sport and the American Jewish Experience (New York, 1992), 271; Riess, City Games, 122 and passim, has abundant material on ethnic groups. For an interesting analysis of Jewish women, see George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation, and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America," Journal of Sport History 18 (1991), 103-21. See also Sam Regalado, "Sport and Community in California's 'Yamato Colony,' 1930-1945," Journal of Sport History 19 (Summer 1992), 130-43.
42. Peter Levine, From Ellis Island to Ebbets Field: Sport and the American Jewish Experience (New York, 1992), 271; Riess, City Games, 122 and passim, has abundant material on ethnic groups. For an interesting analysis of Jewish women, see George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation, and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America," Journal of Sport History 18 (1991), 103-21. See also Sam Regalado, "Sport and Community in California's 'Yamato Colony,' 1930-1945," Journal of Sport History 19 (Summer 1992), 130-43.
43. Peter Levine, From Ellis Island to Ebbets Field: Sport and the American Jewish Experience (New York, 1992), 271; Riess, City Games, 122 and passim, has abundant material on ethnic groups. For an interesting analysis of Jewish women, see George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation, and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America," Journal of Sport History 18 (1991), 103-21. See also Sam Regalado, "Sport and Community in California's 'Yamato Colony,' 1930-1945," Journal of Sport History 19 (Summer 1992), 130-43.
44. Peter Levine, From Ellis Island to Ebbets Field: Sport and the American Jewish Experience (New York, 1992), 271; Riess, City Games, 122 and passim, has abundant material on ethnic groups. For an interesting analysis of Jewish women, see George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation, and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America," Journal of Sport History 18 (1991), 103-21. See also Sam Regalado, "Sport and Community in California's 'Yamato Colony,' 1930-1945," Journal of Sport History 19 (Summer 1992), 130-43.
45. Zane Miller, "Cheers! (But Is That All There Is My Friend)," Reviews in American History 18 (1990), 485-92. For a useful introduction to some of this literature, see Richard Butsch, ed., For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990).
46. Zane Miller, "Cheers! (But Is That All There Is My Friend)," Reviews in American History 18 (1990), 485-92. For a useful introduction to some of this literature, see Richard Butsch, ed., For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990).
47. Steven Riess, Touching Base: Professional Baseball and American Culture in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1980). Riess finds similar ties in his "In the Ring and Out: Professional Boxing in New York, 1896-1920," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America (Westport, CT, 1985), 95-128. Another excellent book that considers the tensions of space, class, ethnicity, and political economy is Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: The History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, 1989); see also the "politics" of boxing in Riess's City Games, in Sammons's Beyond the Ring, and in Elliott Corn's The Manly An: Bare-knuckle Prizefighting in America (Ithaca, 1986).
48. Steven Riess, Touching Base: Professional Baseball and American Culture in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1980). Riess finds similar ties in his "In the Ring and Out: Professional Boxing in New York, 1896-1920," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America (Westport, CT, 1985), 95-128. Another excellent book that considers the tensions of space, class, ethnicity, and political economy is Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: The History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, 1989); see also the "politics" of boxing in Riess's City Games, in Sammons's Beyond the Ring, and in Elliott Corn's The Manly An: Bare-knuckle Prizefighting in America (Ithaca, 1986).
49. Steven Riess, Touching Base: Professional Baseball and American Culture in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1980). Riess finds similar ties in his "In the Ring and Out: Professional Boxing in New York, 1896-1920," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America (Westport, CT, 1985), 95-128. Another excellent book that considers the tensions of space, class, ethnicity, and political economy is Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: The History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, 1989); see also the "politics" of boxing in Riess's City Games, in Sammons's Beyond the Ring, and in Elliott Corn's The Manly An: Bare-knuckle Prizefighting in America (Ithaca, 1986).
50. Steven Riess, Touching Base: Professional Baseball and American Culture in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1980). Riess finds similar ties in his "In the Ring and Out: Professional Boxing in New York, 1896-1920," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America (Westport, CT, 1985), 95-128. Another excellent book that considers the tensions of space, class, ethnicity, and political economy is Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: The History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, 1989); see also the "politics" of boxing in Riess's City Games, in Sammons's Beyond the Ring, and in Elliott Corn's The Manly An: Bare-knuckle Prizefighting in America (Ithaca, 1986).
51. Steven Riess, Touching Base: Professional Baseball and American Culture in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1980). Riess finds similar ties in his "In the Ring and Out: Professional Boxing in New York, 1896-1920," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America (Westport, CT, 1985), 95-128. Another excellent book that considers the tensions of space, class, ethnicity, and political economy is Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: The History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, 1989); see also the "politics" of boxing in Riess's City Games, in Sammons's Beyond the Ring, and in Elliott Corn's The Manly An: Bare-knuckle Prizefighting in America (Ithaca, 1986).
52. See the literature cited in Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, 1992); and David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore, 1986). For a closer look at the historiography, see S. Hardy and Alan Ingham, "Games, Structures, and Agency: Historians on the American Play Movement," Journal of Social History 17 (Winter 1983), 285-302.
53. See the literature cited in Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, 1992); and David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore, 1986). For a closer look at the historiography, see S. Hardy and Alan Ingham, "Games, Structures, and Agency: Historians on the American Play Movement," Journal of Social History 17 (Winter 1983), 285-302.
54. See the literature cited in Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, 1992); and David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore, 1986). For a closer look at the historiography, see S. Hardy and Alan Ingham, "Games, Structures, and Agency: Historians on the American Play Movement," Journal of Social History 17 (Winter 1983), 285-302.
55. Naismith quoted in Rader, American Sports, 228; Playground Committee quoted in Hardy, How Boston Played, 104.
56. Naismith quoted in Rader, American Sports, 228; Playground Committee quoted in Hardy, How Boston Played, 104.
57. Paula Fass, Outside In: Minorities and the Transformation of American Education (New York, 1989), 82; Richard Sorrell, "Sports and Franco-Americans in Woonsockett, 1870-1930," Rhode Island History 31 (1972), 116-26. For a recent criticism of assumptions about sports assimilation, see Mark Grey, "Sports and Immigrant, Minority and Anglo Relations in Garden City (Kansas) High School," Sociology of Sport Journal 9 (1992), 255-70.
58. Paula Fass, Outside In: Minorities and the Transformation of American Education (New York, 1989), 82; Richard Sorrell, "Sports and Franco-Americans in Woonsockett, 1870-1930," Rhode Island History 31 (1972), 116-26. For a recent criticism of assumptions about sports assimilation, see Mark Grey, "Sports and Immigrant, Minority and Anglo Relations in Garden City (Kansas) High School," Sociology of Sport Journal 9 (1992), 255-70.
59. Paula Fass, Outside In: Minorities and the Transformation of American Education (New York, 1989), 82; Richard Sorrell, "Sports and Franco-Americans in Woonsockett, 1870-1930," Rhode Island History 31 (1972), 116-26. For a recent criticism of assumptions about sports assimilation, see Mark Grey, "Sports and Immigrant, Minority and Anglo Relations in Garden City (Kansas) High School," Sociology of Sport Journal 9 (1992), 255-70.
60. Fass, Outside In, 81; Elizabeth Lasch-Quinn, Black Neighbors: Race and the Limits on Reform in the American Settlement House Movement, 1890-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1993), 35, 40, 68. The "agency" literature is considered more generally in Andrea Tuttle Kombluh, "From Culture to Cuisine: Twentieth-Century Views of Race and Ethnicity in the City," in Howard Gillette, Jr. and Zane L. Miller, eds., American Urbanism: A Historiographic Review (New York, 1987), 49-71.
61. Fass, Outside In, 81; Elizabeth Lasch-Quinn, Black Neighbors: Race and the Limits on Reform in the American Settlement House Movement, 1890-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1993), 35, 40, 68. The "agency" literature is considered more generally in Andrea Tuttle Kombluh, "From Culture to Cuisine: Twentieth-Century Views of Race and Ethnicity in the City," in Howard Gillette, Jr. and Zane L. Miller, eds., American Urbanism: A Historiographic Review (New York, 1987), 49-71.
62. Fass, Outside In, 81; Elizabeth Lasch-Quinn, Black Neighbors: Race and the Limits on Reform in the American Settlement House Movement, 1890-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1993), 35, 40, 68. The "agency" literature is considered more generally in Andrea Tuttle Kombluh, "From Culture to Cuisine: Twentieth-Century Views of Race and Ethnicity in the City," in Howard Gillette, Jr. and Zane L. Miller, eds., American Urbanism: A Historiographic Review (New York, 1987), 49-71.
63. James Coates, "Recreation and Sport in the African American Community of Baltimore, 1890-1920," (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, 1991), 138.
64. Greenlee was the wayward son of a prominent North Carolina family. Rob Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh (Urbana, 1987), 3, 114-69. For an excellent look at Chicago, see Michael Lomax, "Black Baseball, Black Community, Black Entrepreneurs: The History of the Negro National and Eastern Colored Leagues, 1880-1930," (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1996). For Baltimore, see Robert Leffler, "Boom and Bust: The Elite Giants and Black Baseball in Baltimore, 1936-1951," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 171-85. The Seattle sport scene is covered in Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle's Central District from 1870 Through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle, 1994).
65. Greenlee was the wayward son of a prominent North Carolina family. Rob Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh (Urbana, 1987), 3, 114-69. For an excellent look at Chicago, see Michael Lomax, "Black Baseball, Black Community, Black Entrepreneurs: The History of the Negro National and Eastern Colored Leagues, 1880-1930," (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1996). For Baltimore, see Robert Leffler, "Boom and Bust: The Elite Giants and Black Baseball in Baltimore, 1936-1951," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 171-85. The Seattle sport scene is covered in Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle's Central District from 1870 Through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle, 1994).
66. Greenlee was the wayward son of a prominent North Carolina family. Rob Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh (Urbana, 1987), 3, 114-69. For an excellent look at Chicago, see Michael Lomax, "Black Baseball, Black Community, Black Entrepreneurs: The History of the Negro National and Eastern Colored Leagues, 1880-1930," (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1996). For Baltimore, see Robert Leffler, "Boom and Bust: The Elite Giants and Black Baseball in Baltimore, 1936-1951," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 171-85. The Seattle sport scene is covered in Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle's Central District from 1870 Through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle, 1994).
67. Greenlee was the wayward son of a prominent North Carolina family. Rob Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh (Urbana, 1987), 3, 114-69. For an excellent look at Chicago, see Michael Lomax, "Black Baseball, Black Community, Black Entrepreneurs: The History of the Negro National and Eastern Colored Leagues, 1880-1930," (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1996). For Baltimore, see Robert Leffler, "Boom and Bust: The Elite Giants and Black Baseball in Baltimore, 1936-1951," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 171-85. The Seattle sport scene is covered in Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle's Central District from 1870 Through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle, 1994).
68. Timothy O'Hanlon, "School Sports as Social Training: The Case of Athletics and the Crisis of World War I," Journal of Sport History 9 (Spring, 1982), 5-29.
69. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990), 181, 205, 341.
70. Bruce Kuklick, To Everything A Season: Shibe Parkand Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, 1991), 191-3. For a different look at memory and baseball, see Goldstein, Playing For Keeps; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business: Pursuing Pennants and Profits in Baltimore (Chapel Hill, 1991); Lowell Blaisdell, "Legends as an Expression of Baseball Memory," Journal of Sport History 19 (Winter 1992), 227-43.
71. Bruce Kuklick, To Everything A Season: Shibe Parkand Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, 1991), 191-3. For a different look at memory and baseball, see Goldstein, Playing For Keeps; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business: Pursuing Pennants and Profits in Baltimore (Chapel Hill, 1991); Lowell Blaisdell, "Legends as an Expression of Baseball Memory," Journal of Sport History 19 (Winter 1992), 227-43.
72. Bruce Kuklick, To Everything A Season: Shibe Parkand Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, 1991), 191-3. For a different look at memory and baseball, see Goldstein, Playing For Keeps; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business: Pursuing Pennants and Profits in Baltimore (Chapel Hill, 1991); Lowell Blaisdell, "Legends as an Expression of Baseball Memory," Journal of Sport History 19 (Winter 1992), 227-43.
73. Bruce Kuklick, To Everything A Season: Shibe Parkand Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, 1991), 191-3. For a different look at memory and baseball, see Goldstein, Playing For Keeps; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business: Pursuing Pennants and Profits in Baltimore (Chapel Hill, 1991); Lowell Blaisdell, "Legends as an Expression of Baseball Memory," Journal of Sport History 19 (Winter 1992), 227-43.
74. Gunther Barth, City People: The Rise of Modern City Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1980), 148-91. For a more subtle and convincing analysis of baseball communities, see Ronald Story, "The Country of the Young: The Meaning of Baseball in Early American Culture," in Cooperstown: Baseball and the American Culture (Westport, 1991), 324-42.
75. Gunther Barth, City People: The Rise of Modern City Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1980), 148-91. For a more subtle and convincing analysis of baseball communities, see Ronald Story, "The Country of the Young: The Meaning of Baseball in Early American Culture," in Cooperstown: Baseball and the American Culture (Westport, 1991), 324-42.
76. Nasaw, Going Out; Riess, City Games, 103-4; Dean Sullivan, "Faces in the Crowd: A Statistical Portrait of Baseball Spectators in Cincinnati, 1886-1888," Journal of Sport History 17 (Winter 1990), 354-65.
77. Nasaw, Going Out; Riess, City Games, 103-4; Dean Sullivan, "Faces in the Crowd: A Statistical Portrait of Baseball Spectators in Cincinnati, 1886-1888," Journal of Sport History 17 (Winter 1990), 354-65.
78. Nasaw, Going Out; Riess, City Games, 103-4; Dean Sullivan, "Faces in the Crowd: A Statistical Portrait of Baseball Spectators in Cincinnati, 1886-1888," Journal of Sport History 17 (Winter 1990), 354-65.
79. See Paul Staudohar and James Mangan, eds., The Business of Professional Sports (Urbana, 1991), especially the chapter by Charles Korr on Marvin Miller; Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight To Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); George Lipsitz, "Sports Stadia and Urban Development: A Tale of Three Cities," Journal of Sport and Social Issues 8 (Fall 1984), 1-18; Kim Schimmel, Alan Ingham, and Jeremy Howell, "Professional Team Sport and the American City: Urban Politics and Franchise Relocations," in Alan Ingham and John Loy, eds., Sport in Social Development (Champaign, 1993), 211-44; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business, and "The Dowager of 33rd Street: Memorial Stadium and the Politics of Big-Time Sports in Maryland, 1954-1991," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 187-200; Leffler, "Boom and Bust." On the problems that socialists had with sports policies, see William Baker, "Muscular Marxism and the Chicago Counter-Olympic Games of 1932," International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (December 1992), 397-410.
80. See Paul Staudohar and James Mangan, eds., The Business of Professional Sports (Urbana, 1991), especially the chapter by Charles Korr on Marvin Miller; Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight To Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); George Lipsitz, "Sports Stadia and Urban Development: A Tale of Three Cities," Journal of Sport and Social Issues 8 (Fall 1984), 1-18; Kim Schimmel, Alan Ingham, and Jeremy Howell, "Professional Team Sport and the American City: Urban Politics and Franchise Relocations," in Alan Ingham and John Loy, eds., Sport in Social Development (Champaign, 1993), 211-44; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business, and "The Dowager of 33rd Street: Memorial Stadium and the Politics of Big-Time Sports in Maryland, 1954-1991," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 187-200; Leffler, "Boom and Bust." On the problems that socialists had with sports policies, see William Baker, "Muscular Marxism and the Chicago Counter-Olympic Games of 1932," International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (December 1992), 397-410.
81. See Paul Staudohar and James Mangan, eds., The Business of Professional Sports (Urbana, 1991), especially the chapter by Charles Korr on Marvin Miller; Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight To Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); George Lipsitz, "Sports Stadia and Urban Development: A Tale of Three Cities," Journal of Sport and Social Issues 8 (Fall 1984), 1-18; Kim Schimmel, Alan Ingham, and Jeremy Howell, "Professional Team Sport and the American City: Urban Politics and Franchise Relocations," in Alan Ingham and John Loy, eds., Sport in Social Development (Champaign, 1993), 211-44; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business, and "The Dowager of 33rd Street: Memorial Stadium and the Politics of Big-Time Sports in Maryland, 1954-1991," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 187-200; Leffler, "Boom and Bust." On the problems that socialists had with sports policies, see William Baker, "Muscular Marxism and the Chicago Counter-Olympic Games of 1932," International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (December 1992), 397-410.
82. See Paul Staudohar and James Mangan, eds., The Business of Professional Sports (Urbana, 1991), especially the chapter by Charles Korr on Marvin Miller; Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight To Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); George Lipsitz, "Sports Stadia and Urban Development: A Tale of Three Cities," Journal of Sport and Social Issues 8 (Fall 1984), 1-18; Kim Schimmel, Alan Ingham, and Jeremy Howell, "Professional Team Sport and the American City: Urban Politics and Franchise Relocations," in Alan Ingham and John Loy, eds., Sport in Social Development (Champaign, 1993), 211-44; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business, and "The Dowager of 33rd Street: Memorial Stadium and the Politics of Big-Time Sports in Maryland, 1954-1991," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 187-200; Leffler, "Boom and Bust." On the problems that socialists had with sports policies, see William Baker, "Muscular Marxism and the Chicago Counter-Olympic Games of 1932," International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (December 1992), 397-410.
83. See Paul Staudohar and James Mangan, eds., The Business of Professional Sports (Urbana, 1991), especially the chapter by Charles Korr on Marvin Miller; Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight To Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); George Lipsitz, "Sports Stadia and Urban Development: A Tale of Three Cities," Journal of Sport and Social Issues 8 (Fall 1984), 1-18; Kim Schimmel, Alan Ingham, and Jeremy Howell, "Professional Team Sport and the American City: Urban Politics and Franchise Relocations," in Alan Ingham and John Loy, eds., Sport in Social Development (Champaign, 1993), 211-44; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business, and "The Dowager of 33rd Street: Memorial Stadium and the Politics of Big-Time Sports in Maryland, 1954-1991," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 187-200; Leffler, "Boom and Bust." On the problems that socialists had with sports policies, see William Baker, "Muscular Marxism and the Chicago Counter-Olympic Games of 1932," International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (December 1992), 397-410.
84. See Paul Staudohar and James Mangan, eds., The Business of Professional Sports (Urbana, 1991), especially the chapter by Charles Korr on Marvin Miller; Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight To Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); George Lipsitz, "Sports Stadia and Urban Development: A Tale of Three Cities," Journal of Sport and Social Issues 8 (Fall 1984), 1-18; Kim Schimmel, Alan Ingham, and Jeremy Howell, "Professional Team Sport and the American City: Urban Politics and Franchise Relocations," in Alan Ingham and John Loy, eds., Sport in Social Development (Champaign, 1993), 211-44; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business, and "The Dowager of 33rd Street: Memorial Stadium and the Politics of Big-Time Sports in Maryland, 1954-1991," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 187-200; Leffler, "Boom and Bust." On the problems that socialists had with sports policies, see William Baker, "Muscular Marxism and the Chicago Counter-Olympic Games of 1932," International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (December 1992), 397-410.
85. See Paul Staudohar and James Mangan, eds., The Business of Professional Sports (Urbana, 1991), especially the chapter by Charles Korr on Marvin Miller; Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight To Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); George Lipsitz, "Sports Stadia and Urban Development: A Tale of Three Cities," Journal of Sport and Social Issues 8 (Fall 1984), 1-18; Kim Schimmel, Alan Ingham, and Jeremy Howell, "Professional Team Sport and the American City: Urban Politics and Franchise Relocations," in Alan Ingham and John Loy, eds., Sport in Social Development (Champaign, 1993), 211-44; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business, and "The Dowager of 33rd Street: Memorial Stadium and the Politics of Big-Time Sports in Maryland, 1954-1991," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 187-200; Leffler, "Boom and Bust." On the problems that socialists had with sports policies, see William Baker, "Muscular Marxism and the Chicago Counter-Olympic Games of 1932," International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (December 1992), 397-410.
86. See Paul Staudohar and James Mangan, eds., The Business of Professional Sports (Urbana, 1991), especially the chapter by Charles Korr on Marvin Miller; Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight To Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); George Lipsitz, "Sports Stadia and Urban Development: A Tale of Three Cities," Journal of Sport and Social Issues 8 (Fall 1984), 1-18; Kim Schimmel, Alan Ingham, and Jeremy Howell, "Professional Team Sport and the American City: Urban Politics and Franchise Relocations," in Alan Ingham and John Loy, eds., Sport in Social Development (Champaign, 1993), 211-44; James E. Miller, The Baseball Business, and "The Dowager of 33rd Street: Memorial Stadium and the Politics of Big-Time Sports in Maryland, 1954-1991," Maryland Historical Magazine 87 (Summer 1992), 187-200; Leffler, "Boom and Bust." On the problems that socialists had with sports policies, see William Baker, "Muscular Marxism and the Chicago Counter-Olympic Games of 1932," International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (December 1992), 397-410.
87. Samuel Hays, "From the History of the City to the History of the Urbanized Society," Journal of Urban History 19 (1993), 3-25. For a similar view about the expanded notion of "city," see Gillette and Millar, American Urbanism, 3. On the language turn, see Lynn Hunt, "Introduction: History, Culture, and Text," in The New Cultural History (Berkeley, 1989), 1-22.
88. Samuel Hays, "From the History of the City to the History of the Urbanized Society," Journal of Urban History 19 (1993), 3-25. For a similar view about the expanded notion of "city," see Gillette and Millar, American Urbanism, 3. On the language turn, see Lynn Hunt, "Introduction: History, Culture, and Text," in The New Cultural History (Berkeley, 1989), 1-22.
89. Samuel Hays, "From the History of the City to the History of the Urbanized Society," Journal of Urban History 19 (1993), 3-25. For a similar view about the expanded notion of "city," see Gillette and Millar, American Urbanism, 3. On the language turn, see Lynn Hunt, "Introduction: History, Culture, and Text," in The New Cultural History (Berkeley, 1989), 1-22.
90. Gorn, The Manly Art, 144; see also Adelman, A Sporting Time on the role of the urban press. Recent reviews of sport media history include Robert McChesney, "Media Made Sport: A History of Sports Coverage in the United States," in Lawrence Wenner, ed., Media, Sports and Society (London, 1989), 49-69; Janet Lever and Stanton Wheeler, "Mass Media and the Experience of Sport," Communication Research 20 (Feb 1993), 125-43; Elliott Gorn, "The Wicked World: The National Police Gazette and Gilded-Age America," Media Studies Journal 6 (1992), 1-15.
91. Gorn, The Manly Art, 144; see also Adelman, A Sporting Time on the role of the urban press. Recent reviews of sport media history include Robert McChesney, "Media Made Sport: A History of Sports Coverage in the United States," in Lawrence Wenner, ed., Media, Sports and Society (London, 1989), 49-69; Janet Lever and Stanton Wheeler, "Mass Media and the Experience of Sport," Communication Research 20 (Feb 1993), 125-43; Elliott Gorn, "The Wicked World: The National Police Gazette and Gilded-Age America," Media Studies Journal 6 (1992), 1-15.
92. Gorn, The Manly Art, 144; see also Adelman, A Sporting Time on the role of the urban press. Recent reviews of sport media history include Robert McChesney, "Media Made Sport: A History of Sports Coverage in the United States," in Lawrence Wenner, ed., Media, Sports and Society (London, 1989), 49-69; Janet Lever and Stanton Wheeler, "Mass Media and the Experience of Sport," Communication Research 20 (Feb 1993), 125-43; Elliott Gorn, "The Wicked World: The National Police Gazette and Gilded-Age America," Media Studies Journal 6 (1992), 1-15.
93. Gorn, The Manly Art, 144; see also Adelman, A Sporting Time on the role of the urban press. Recent reviews of sport media history include Robert McChesney, "Media Made Sport: A History of Sports Coverage in the United States," in Lawrence Wenner, ed., Media, Sports and Society (London, 1989), 49-69; Janet Lever and Stanton Wheeler, "Mass Media and the Experience of Sport," Communication Research 20 (Feb 1993), 125-43; Elliott Gorn, "The Wicked World: The National Police Gazette and Gilded-Age America," Media Studies Journal 6 (1992), 1-15.
94. Gorn, The Manly Art, 144; see also Adelman, A Sporting Time on the role of the urban press. Recent reviews of sport media history include Robert McChesney, "Media Made Sport: A History of Sports Coverage in the United States," in Lawrence Wenner, ed., Media, Sports and Society (London, 1989), 49-69; Janet Lever and Stanton Wheeler, "Mass Media and the Experience of Sport," Communication Research 20 (Feb 1993), 125-43; Elliott Gorn, "The Wicked World: The National Police Gazette and Gilded-Age America," Media Studies Journal 6 (1992), 1-15.
95. Michael Oriard, Reading Football: How the Popular Press Created an American Spectacle (Chapel Hill, 1993); see also Ronald Smith, Sports and Freedom: The Rise of Big-Time College Athletics (New York, 1988).
96. Michael Oriard, Reading Football: How the Popular Press Created an American Spectacle (Chapel Hill, 1993); see also Ronald Smith, Sports and Freedom: The Rise of Big-Time College Athletics (New York, 1988).
97. Robert S. and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown (New York, 1929), 271. Radio quotes are from "Radio Makes East Vast Grand Stand," The New York Times, October 5, 1922, 19. The debate over television's role may be found in Ben Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports (New York, 1984), and Joan Chandler, Television and National Sport (Urbana, 1988); Randy Roberts and James Olson, Winning is the Only Thing: Sports in America Since 1945 (Baltimore, 1989), 95-132. The Johnson-Jeffries fight films are covered in Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1984). Patrick Trimble has an excellent analysis of early movies in "Babe Ruth: The Media Construction of a 1920s Sport Personality" (paper presented at the annual convention of the North American Society for Sport History, May 1994). For valuable suggestions on the "grammar" of different sports media, see Margaret Carlisle-Duncan, "The Mediation of Spectator Sports," Research Quarterly 58 (1987), 168-77.
98. Robert S. and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown (New York, 1929), 271. Radio quotes are from "Radio Makes East Vast Grand Stand," The New York Times, October 5, 1922, 19. The debate over television's role may be found in Ben Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports (New York, 1984), and Joan Chandler, Television and National Sport (Urbana, 1988); Randy Roberts and James Olson, Winning is the Only Thing: Sports in America Since 1945 (Baltimore, 1989), 95-132. The Johnson-Jeffries fight films are covered in Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1984). Patrick Trimble has an excellent analysis of early movies in "Babe Ruth: The Media Construction of a 1920s Sport Personality" (paper presented at the annual convention of the North American Society for Sport History, May 1994). For valuable suggestions on the "grammar" of different sports media, see Margaret Carlisle-Duncan, "The Mediation of Spectator Sports," Research Quarterly 58 (1987), 168-77.
99. Robert S. and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown (New York, 1929), 271. Radio quotes are from "Radio Makes East Vast Grand Stand," The New York Times, October 5, 1922, 19. The debate over television's role may be found in Ben Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports (New York, 1984), and Joan Chandler, Television and National Sport (Urbana, 1988); Randy Roberts and James Olson, Winning is the Only Thing: Sports in America Since 1945 (Baltimore, 1989), 95-132. The Johnson-Jeffries fight films are covered in Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1984). Patrick Trimble has an excellent analysis of early movies in "Babe Ruth: The Media Construction of a 1920s Sport Personality" (paper presented at the annual convention of the North American Society for Sport History, May 1994). For valuable suggestions on the "grammar" of different sports media, see Margaret Carlisle-Duncan, "The Mediation of Spectator Sports," Research Quarterly 58 (1987), 168-77.
100. Robert S. and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown (New York, 1929), 271. Radio quotes are from "Radio Makes East Vast Grand Stand," The New York Times, October 5, 1922, 19. The debate over television's role may be found in Ben Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports (New York, 1984), and Joan Chandler, Television and National Sport (Urbana, 1988); Randy Roberts and James Olson, Winning is the Only Thing: Sports in America Since 1945 (Baltimore, 1989), 95-132. The Johnson-Jeffries fight films are covered in Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1984). Patrick Trimble has an excellent analysis of early movies in "Babe Ruth: The Media Construction of a 1920s Sport Personality" (paper presented at the annual convention of the North American Society for Sport History, May 1994). For valuable suggestions on the "grammar" of different sports media, see Margaret Carlisle-Duncan, "The Mediation of Spectator Sports," Research Quarterly 58 (1987), 168-77.
101. Robert S. and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown (New York, 1929), 271. Radio quotes are from "Radio Makes East Vast Grand Stand," The New York Times, October 5, 1922, 19. The debate over television's role may be found in Ben Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports (New York, 1984), and Joan Chandler, Television and National Sport (Urbana, 1988); Randy Roberts and James Olson, Winning is the Only Thing: Sports in America Since 1945 (Baltimore, 1989), 95-132. The Johnson-Jeffries fight films are covered in Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1984). Patrick Trimble has an excellent analysis of early movies in "Babe Ruth: The Media Construction of a 1920s Sport Personality" (paper presented at the annual convention of the North American Society for Sport History, May 1994). For valuable suggestions on the "grammar" of different sports media, see Margaret Carlisle-Duncan, "The Mediation of Spectator Sports," Research Quarterly 58 (1987), 168-77.
102. Robert S. and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown (New York, 1929), 271. Radio quotes are from "Radio Makes East Vast Grand Stand," The New York Times, October 5, 1922, 19. The debate over television's role may be found in Ben Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports (New York, 1984), and Joan Chandler, Television and National Sport (Urbana, 1988); Randy Roberts and James Olson, Winning is the Only Thing: Sports in America Since 1945 (Baltimore, 1989), 95-132. The Johnson-Jeffries fight films are covered in Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1984). Patrick Trimble has an excellent analysis of early movies in "Babe Ruth: The Media Construction of a 1920s Sport Personality" (paper presented at the annual convention of the North American Society for Sport History, May 1994). For valuable suggestions on the "grammar" of different sports media, see Margaret Carlisle-Duncan, "The Mediation of Spectator Sports," Research Quarterly 58 (1987), 168-77.
103. Robert S. and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown (New York, 1929), 271. Radio quotes are from "Radio Makes East Vast Grand Stand," The New York Times, October 5, 1922, 19. The debate over television's role may be found in Ben Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports (New York, 1984), and Joan Chandler, Television and National Sport (Urbana, 1988); Randy Roberts and James Olson, Winning is the Only Thing: Sports in America Since 1945 (Baltimore, 1989), 95-132. The Johnson-Jeffries fight films are covered in Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1984). Patrick Trimble has an excellent analysis of early movies in "Babe Ruth: The Media Construction of a 1920s Sport Personality" (paper presented at the annual convention of the North American Society for Sport History, May 1994). For valuable suggestions on the "grammar" of different sports media, see Margaret Carlisle-Duncan, "The Mediation of Spectator Sports," Research Quarterly 58 (1987), 168-77.
104. Robert S. and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown (New York, 1929), 271. Radio quotes are from "Radio Makes East Vast Grand Stand," The New York Times, October 5, 1922, 19. The debate over television's role may be found in Ben Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports (New York, 1984), and Joan Chandler, Television and National Sport (Urbana, 1988); Randy Roberts and James Olson, Winning is the Only Thing: Sports in America Since 1945 (Baltimore, 1989), 95-132. The Johnson-Jeffries fight films are covered in Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1984). Patrick Trimble has an excellent analysis of early movies in "Babe Ruth: The Media Construction of a 1920s Sport Personality" (paper presented at the annual convention of the North American Society for Sport History, May 1994). For valuable suggestions on the "grammar" of different sports media, see Margaret Carlisle-Duncan, "The Mediation of Spectator Sports," Research Quarterly 58 (1987), 168-77.
105. Oriard, Reading Football, 141; methodology is covered extensively in Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treichler, eds., Cultural Studies (New York, 1992). For critiques of mass "consumption" studies, see Lizabeth Cohen, "The Mass in Mass Consumption," Reviews in American History 18 (1990), 548-55; Gregory Bush, "'Genial Evasion' in the Big Time: Changing Norms of Respectability Within an Expansive Urban Culture," Journal of Urban History 19 (May 1993), 121-38. A valuable "reception" study is Gregory Waller, Main Street Amusements: Movies and Commercial Entertainment in a Southern City, 1896-1930 (Washington, DC, 1995).
106. Oriard, Reading Football, 141; methodology is covered extensively in Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treichler, eds., Cultural Studies (New York, 1992). For critiques of mass "consumption" studies, see Lizabeth Cohen, "The Mass in Mass Consumption," Reviews in American History 18 (1990), 548-55; Gregory Bush, "'Genial Evasion' in the Big Time: Changing Norms of Respectability Within an Expansive Urban Culture," Journal of Urban History 19 (May 1993), 121-38. A valuable "reception" study is Gregory Waller, Main Street Amusements: Movies and Commercial Entertainment in a Southern City, 1896-1930 (Washington, DC, 1995).
107. Oriard, Reading Football, 141; methodology is covered extensively in Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treichler, eds., Cultural Studies (New York, 1992). For critiques of mass "consumption" studies, see Lizabeth Cohen, "The Mass in Mass Consumption," Reviews in American History 18 (1990), 548-55; Gregory Bush, "'Genial Evasion' in the Big Time: Changing Norms of Respectability Within an Expansive Urban Culture," Journal of Urban History 19 (May 1993), 121-38. A valuable "reception" study is Gregory Waller, Main Street Amusements: Movies and Commercial Entertainment in a Southern City, 1896-1930 (Washington, DC, 1995).
108. Oriard, Reading Football, 141; methodology is covered extensively in Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treichler, eds., Cultural Studies (New York, 1992). For critiques of mass "consumption" studies, see Lizabeth Cohen, "The Mass in Mass Consumption," Reviews in American History 18 (1990), 548-55; Gregory Bush, "'Genial Evasion' in the Big Time: Changing Norms of Respectability Within an Expansive Urban Culture," Journal of Urban History 19 (May 1993), 121-38. A valuable "reception" study is Gregory Waller, Main Street Amusements: Movies and Commercial Entertainment in a Southern City, 1896-1930 (Washington, DC, 1995).
109. Oriard, Reading Football, 141; methodology is covered extensively in Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treichler, eds., Cultural Studies (New York, 1992). For critiques of mass "consumption" studies, see Lizabeth Cohen, "The Mass in Mass Consumption," Reviews in American History 18 (1990), 548-55; Gregory Bush, "'Genial Evasion' in the Big Time: Changing Norms of Respectability Within an Expansive Urban Culture," Journal of Urban History 19 (May 1993), 121-38. A valuable "reception" study is Gregory Waller, Main Street Amusements: Movies and Commercial Entertainment in a Southern City, 1896-1930 (Washington, DC, 1995).
110. Bruce Evensen, "Jazz Age Journalism's Battle Over Professionalism, Circulation, and the Sports Page," Journal of Sport History 20 (Winter 1993), 229-46; and When Dempsey Met Tunney: Heroes, Hokum, and Storytelling in the Jazz Age (Knoxville, 1996). Murray Sperber brilliantly shows the press's role in commercializing football in Shake Down the Thunder: The Creation of Notre Dame Football (New York, 1994). See also historical chapters by Linda Williams and Pamela Creedon in Women, Media, and Sport (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1994), 44-158; David Wiggins, "Wendell Smith, the Pittsbugh Courier-Journal, and the Campaign to Include Blacks in Organized Baseball, 1933-45," Journal of Sport History 10 (1983), 5-29; Charles Fountain has some useful material in his biography of Grantland Rice, Sportswriter (New York, 1993).
111. Bruce Evensen, "Jazz Age Journalism's Battle Over Professionalism, Circulation, and the Sports Page," Journal of Sport History 20 (Winter 1993), 229-46; and When Dempsey Met Tunney: Heroes, Hokum, and Storytelling in the Jazz Age (Knoxville, 1996). Murray Sperber brilliantly shows the press's role in commercializing football in Shake Down the Thunder: The Creation of Notre Dame Football (New York, 1994). See also historical chapters by Linda Williams and Pamela Creedon in Women, Media, and Sport (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1994), 44-158; David Wiggins, "Wendell Smith, the Pittsbugh Courier-Journal, and the Campaign to Include Blacks in Organized Baseball, 1933-45," Journal of Sport History 10 (1983), 5-29; Charles Fountain has some useful material in his biography of Grantland Rice, Sportswriter (New York, 1993).
112. Bruce Evensen, "Jazz Age Journalism's Battle Over Professionalism, Circulation, and the Sports Page," Journal of Sport History 20 (Winter 1993), 229-46; and When Dempsey Met Tunney: Heroes, Hokum, and Storytelling in the Jazz Age (Knoxville, 1996). Murray Sperber brilliantly shows the press's role in commercializing football in Shake Down the Thunder: The Creation of Notre Dame Football (New York, 1994). See also historical chapters by Linda Williams and Pamela Creedon in Women, Media, and Sport (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1994), 44-158; David Wiggins, "Wendell Smith, the Pittsbugh Courier-Journal, and the Campaign to Include Blacks in Organized Baseball, 1933-45," Journal of Sport History 10 (1983), 5-29; Charles Fountain has some useful material in his biography of Grantland Rice, Sportswriter (New York, 1993).
113. Bruce Evensen, "Jazz Age Journalism's Battle Over Professionalism, Circulation, and the Sports Page," Journal of Sport History 20 (Winter 1993), 229-46; and When Dempsey Met Tunney: Heroes, Hokum, and Storytelling in the Jazz Age (Knoxville, 1996). Murray Sperber brilliantly shows the press's role in commercializing football in Shake Down the Thunder: The Creation of Notre Dame Football (New York, 1994). See also historical chapters by Linda Williams and Pamela Creedon in Women, Media, and Sport (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1994), 44-158; David Wiggins, "Wendell Smith, the Pittsbugh Courier-Journal, and the Campaign to Include Blacks in Organized Baseball, 1933-45," Journal of Sport History 10 (1983), 5-29; Charles Fountain has some useful material in his biography of Grantland Rice, Sportswriter (New York, 1993).
114. Bruce Evensen, "Jazz Age Journalism's Battle Over Professionalism, Circulation, and the Sports Page," Journal of Sport History 20 (Winter 1993), 229-46; and When Dempsey Met Tunney: Heroes, Hokum, and Storytelling in the Jazz Age (Knoxville, 1996). Murray Sperber brilliantly shows the press's role in commercializing football in Shake Down the Thunder: The Creation of Notre Dame Football (New York, 1994). See also historical chapters by Linda Williams and Pamela Creedon in Women, Media, and Sport (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1994), 44-158; David Wiggins, "Wendell Smith, the Pittsbugh Courier-Journal, and the Campaign to Include Blacks in Organized Baseball, 1933-45," Journal of Sport History 10 (1983), 5-29; Charles Fountain has some useful material in his biography of Grantland Rice, Sportswriter (New York, 1993).
115. Bruce Evensen, "Jazz Age Journalism's Battle Over Professionalism, Circulation, and the Sports Page," Journal of Sport History 20 (Winter 1993), 229-46; and When Dempsey Met Tunney: Heroes, Hokum, and Storytelling in the Jazz Age (Knoxville, 1996). Murray Sperber brilliantly shows the press's role in commercializing football in Shake Down the Thunder: The Creation of Notre Dame Football (New York, 1994). See also historical chapters by Linda Williams and Pamela Creedon in Women, Media, and Sport (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1994), 44-158; David Wiggins, "Wendell Smith, the Pittsbugh Courier-Journal, and the Campaign to Include Blacks in Organized Baseball, 1933-45," Journal of Sport History 10 (1983), 5-29; Charles Fountain has some useful material in his biography of Grantland Rice, Sportswriter (New York, 1993).
116. Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (Chicago, 1983), xiv, 238. For a sliver of the literature on body culture, see Pierre Bourdieu, "Sport and Social Class," Social Science Information 17 (1978), 819-40; Chris Shilling, "Educating the Body; Physical Capital and the Production of Social Inequalities," Sociology 25 (November 1991), 653-72; Mike Featherstone, ed., The Body (London, 1991). For important notions about the body as authentic and controllable in urban-industrial culture, see Donald Mrozek, "Sport in National Life, 1890-1940," and T. J. Jackson Lears, "American Advertising and the Body, 1880-1930," both in Kathryn Grover, ed., Fitness in American Culture (Amherst, MA, 1989); also, Martha Verbrugge, Able-Bodied Womanhood (New York, 1988).
117. Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (Chicago, 1983), xiv, 238. For a sliver of the literature on body culture, see Pierre Bourdieu, "Sport and Social Class," Social Science Information 17 (1978), 819-40; Chris Shilling, "Educating the Body; Physical Capital and the Production of Social Inequalities," Sociology 25 (November 1991), 653-72; Mike Featherstone, ed., The Body (London, 1991). For important notions about the body as authentic and controllable in urban-industrial culture, see Donald Mrozek, "Sport in National Life, 1890-1940," and T. J. Jackson Lears, "American Advertising and the Body, 1880-1930," both in Kathryn Grover, ed., Fitness in American Culture (Amherst, MA, 1989); also, Martha Verbrugge, Able-Bodied Womanhood (New York, 1988).
118. Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (Chicago, 1983), xiv, 238. For a sliver of the literature on body culture, see Pierre Bourdieu, "Sport and Social Class," Social Science Information 17 (1978), 819-40; Chris Shilling, "Educating the Body; Physical Capital and the Production of Social Inequalities," Sociology 25 (November 1991), 653-72; Mike Featherstone, ed., The Body (London, 1991). For important notions about the body as authentic and controllable in urban-industrial culture, see Donald Mrozek, "Sport in National Life, 1890-1940," and T. J. Jackson Lears, "American Advertising and the Body, 1880-1930," both in Kathryn Grover, ed., Fitness in American Culture (Amherst, MA, 1989); also, Martha Verbrugge, Able-Bodied Womanhood (New York, 1988).
119. Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (Chicago, 1983), xiv, 238. For a sliver of the literature on body culture, see Pierre Bourdieu, "Sport and Social Class," Social Science Information 17 (1978), 819-40; Chris Shilling, "Educating the Body; Physical Capital and the Production of Social Inequalities," Sociology 25 (November 1991), 653-72; Mike Featherstone, ed., The Body (London, 1991). For important notions about the body as authentic and controllable in urban-industrial culture, see Donald Mrozek, "Sport in National Life, 1890-1940," and T. J. Jackson Lears, "American Advertising and the Body, 1880-1930," both in Kathryn Grover, ed., Fitness in American Culture (Amherst, MA, 1989); also, Martha Verbrugge, Able-Bodied Womanhood (New York, 1988).
120. Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (Chicago, 1983), xiv, 238. For a sliver of the literature on body culture, see Pierre Bourdieu, "Sport and Social Class," Social Science Information 17 (1978), 819-40; Chris Shilling, "Educating the Body; Physical Capital and the Production of Social Inequalities," Sociology 25 (November 1991), 653-72; Mike Featherstone, ed., The Body (London, 1991). For important notions about the body as authentic and controllable in urban-industrial culture, see Donald Mrozek, "Sport in National Life, 1890-1940," and T. J. Jackson Lears, "American Advertising and the Body, 1880-1930," both in Kathryn Grover, ed., Fitness in American Culture (Amherst, MA, 1989); also, Martha Verbrugge, Able-Bodied Womanhood (New York, 1988).
121. Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (Chicago, 1983), xiv, 238. For a sliver of the literature on body culture, see Pierre Bourdieu, "Sport and Social Class," Social Science Information 17 (1978), 819-40; Chris Shilling, "Educating the Body; Physical Capital and the Production of Social Inequalities," Sociology 25 (November 1991), 653-72; Mike Featherstone, ed., The Body (London, 1991). For important notions about the body as authentic and controllable in urban-industrial culture, see Donald Mrozek, "Sport in National Life, 1890-1940," and T. J. Jackson Lears, "American Advertising and the Body, 1880-1930," both in Kathryn Grover, ed., Fitness in American Culture (Amherst, MA, 1989); also, Martha Verbrugge, Able-Bodied Womanhood (New York, 1988).
122. Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (Chicago, 1983), xiv, 238. For a sliver of the literature on body culture, see Pierre Bourdieu, "Sport and Social Class," Social Science Information 17 (1978), 819-40; Chris Shilling, "Educating the Body; Physical Capital and the Production of Social Inequalities," Sociology 25 (November 1991), 653-72; Mike Featherstone, ed., The Body (London, 1991). For important notions about the body as authentic and controllable in urban-industrial culture, see Donald Mrozek, "Sport in National Life, 1890-1940," and T. J. Jackson Lears, "American Advertising and the Body, 1880-1930," both in Kathryn Grover, ed., Fitness in American Culture (Amherst, MA, 1989); also, Martha Verbrugge, Able-Bodied Womanhood (New York, 1988).
123. Nasaw, Going Out, 47, 101; Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1983), 24-5, 60-61; William Wiggins, "Boxing's Sambo Twins: Racial Stereotypes in Jack Johnson and Joe Louis Newspaper Cartoons, 1908-1938," Journal of Sport History 15 (Winter 1988), 242-54. For use of black mascots in women's athletics, see Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986). For an interesting ethnography of boxing's body culture, see Loic Wacquant, "The Social Logic of Boxing in Black Chicago: Toward a Sociology of Pugilism," Sociology of Sport Journal 9 (September 1992), 221-55. See also the excellent articles by Thomas C. Holt, "Marking: Race, Race-making, and the Writing of History," American Historical Review 100 (February 1995), 1-20; and Jeffrey T. Sammons, "'Race' and Sport: A Critical, Historical Explanation," Journal of Sport History 21 (Fall 1994), 203-78.
124. Nasaw, Going Out, 47, 101; Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1983), 24-5, 60-61; William Wiggins, "Boxing's Sambo Twins: Racial Stereotypes in Jack Johnson and Joe Louis Newspaper Cartoons, 1908-1938," Journal of Sport History 15 (Winter 1988), 242-54. For use of black mascots in women's athletics, see Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986). For an interesting ethnography of boxing's body culture, see Loic Wacquant, "The Social Logic of Boxing in Black Chicago: Toward a Sociology of Pugilism," Sociology of Sport Journal 9 (September 1992), 221-55. See also the excellent articles by Thomas C. Holt, "Marking: Race, Race-making, and the Writing of History," American Historical Review 100 (February 1995), 1-20; and Jeffrey T. Sammons, "'Race' and Sport: A Critical, Historical Explanation," Journal of Sport History 21 (Fall 1994), 203-78.
125. Nasaw, Going Out, 47, 101; Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1983), 24-5, 60-61; William Wiggins, "Boxing's Sambo Twins: Racial Stereotypes in Jack Johnson and Joe Louis Newspaper Cartoons, 1908-1938," Journal of Sport History 15 (Winter 1988), 242-54. For use of black mascots in women's athletics, see Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986). For an interesting ethnography of boxing's body culture, see Loic Wacquant, "The Social Logic of Boxing in Black Chicago: Toward a Sociology of Pugilism," Sociology of Sport Journal 9 (September 1992), 221-55. See also the excellent articles by Thomas C. Holt, "Marking: Race, Race-making, and the Writing of History," American Historical Review 100 (February 1995), 1-20; and Jeffrey T. Sammons, "'Race' and Sport: A Critical, Historical Explanation," Journal of Sport History 21 (Fall 1994), 203-78.
126. Nasaw, Going Out, 47, 101; Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1983), 24-5, 60-61; William Wiggins, "Boxing's Sambo Twins: Racial Stereotypes in Jack Johnson and Joe Louis Newspaper Cartoons, 1908-1938," Journal of Sport History 15 (Winter 1988), 242-54. For use of black mascots in women's athletics, see Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986). For an interesting ethnography of boxing's body culture, see Loic Wacquant, "The Social Logic of Boxing in Black Chicago: Toward a Sociology of Pugilism," Sociology of Sport Journal 9 (September 1992), 221-55. See also the excellent articles by Thomas C. Holt, "Marking: Race, Race-making, and the Writing of History," American Historical Review 100 (February 1995), 1-20; and Jeffrey T. Sammons, "'Race' and Sport: A Critical, Historical Explanation," Journal of Sport History 21 (Fall 1994), 203-78.
127. Nasaw, Going Out, 47, 101; Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1983), 24-5, 60-61; William Wiggins, "Boxing's Sambo Twins: Racial Stereotypes in Jack Johnson and Joe Louis Newspaper Cartoons, 1908-1938," Journal of Sport History 15 (Winter 1988), 242-54. For use of black mascots in women's athletics, see Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986). For an interesting ethnography of boxing's body culture, see Loic Wacquant, "The Social Logic of Boxing in Black Chicago: Toward a Sociology of Pugilism," Sociology of Sport Journal 9 (September 1992), 221-55. See also the excellent articles by Thomas C. Holt, "Marking: Race, Race-making, and the Writing of History," American Historical Review 100 (February 1995), 1-20; and Jeffrey T. Sammons, "'Race' and Sport: A Critical, Historical Explanation," Journal of Sport History 21 (Fall 1994), 203-78.
128. Nasaw, Going Out, 47, 101; Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1983), 24-5, 60-61; William Wiggins, "Boxing's Sambo Twins: Racial Stereotypes in Jack Johnson and Joe Louis Newspaper Cartoons, 1908-1938," Journal of Sport History 15 (Winter 1988), 242-54. For use of black mascots in women's athletics, see Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986). For an interesting ethnography of boxing's body culture, see Loic Wacquant, "The Social Logic of Boxing in Black Chicago: Toward a Sociology of Pugilism," Sociology of Sport Journal 9 (September 1992), 221-55. See also the excellent articles by Thomas C. Holt, "Marking: Race, Race-making, and the Writing of History," American Historical Review 100 (February 1995), 1-20; and Jeffrey T. Sammons, "'Race' and Sport: A Critical, Historical Explanation," Journal of Sport History 21 (Fall 1994), 203-78.
129. Nasaw, Going Out, 47, 101; Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York, 1983), 24-5, 60-61; William Wiggins, "Boxing's Sambo Twins: Racial Stereotypes in Jack Johnson and Joe Louis Newspaper Cartoons, 1908-1938," Journal of Sport History 15 (Winter 1988), 242-54. For use of black mascots in women's athletics, see Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986). For an interesting ethnography of boxing's body culture, see Loic Wacquant, "The Social Logic of Boxing in Black Chicago: Toward a Sociology of Pugilism," Sociology of Sport Journal 9 (September 1992), 221-55. See also the excellent articles by Thomas C. Holt, "Marking: Race, Race-making, and the Writing of History," American Historical Review 100 (February 1995), 1-20; and Jeffrey T. Sammons, "'Race' and Sport: A Critical, Historical Explanation," Journal of Sport History 21 (Fall 1994), 203-78.
130. Nelson George, Elevating the Game: Black Men in Basketball (New York, 1992), 61-2. George's work fits into the newer "agency" model discussed in Joe William Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective (Bloomington, 1991); and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward a New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995), 283-95. For other views of the Black aesthetic, see David Leviatin, "The Evolution and Commodification of Black Basketball Style," Radical History Review 55 (Winter 1993), 154-64; Gerald Gems, "Blocked Shot: The Development of Basketball in the African American Community of Chicago," Journal of Sport History 22 (Summer 1995), 135-48. Compare George's thesis to Burton Peretti's The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America (Urbana, 1992). For earlier roots to the Black aesthetic, see Roger Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African-American Culture in the Plantation South (New York, 1992). For a review of earlier literature that focussed on biological, not cultural, determinants of black performance, see David Wiggins, "'Great Speed But Little Stamina': The Historical Debate Over Black Athletic Superiority," Journal of Sport History 16 (Summer 1989), 158-85.
131. Nelson George, Elevating the Game: Black Men in Basketball (New York, 1992), 61-2. George's work fits into the newer "agency" model discussed in Joe William Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective (Bloomington, 1991); and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward a New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995), 283-95. For other views of the Black aesthetic, see David Leviatin, "The Evolution and Commodification of Black Basketball Style," Radical History Review 55 (Winter 1993), 154-64; Gerald Gems, "Blocked Shot: The Development of Basketball in the African American Community of Chicago," Journal of Sport History 22 (Summer 1995), 135-48. Compare George's thesis to Burton Peretti's The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America (Urbana, 1992). For earlier roots to the Black aesthetic, see Roger Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African-American Culture in the Plantation South (New York, 1992). For a review of earlier literature that focussed on biological, not cultural, determinants of black performance, see David Wiggins, "'Great Speed But Little Stamina': The Historical Debate Over Black Athletic Superiority," Journal of Sport History 16 (Summer 1989), 158-85.
132. Nelson George, Elevating the Game: Black Men in Basketball (New York, 1992), 61-2. George's work fits into the newer "agency" model discussed in Joe William Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective (Bloomington, 1991); and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward a New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995), 283-95. For other views of the Black aesthetic, see David Leviatin, "The Evolution and Commodification of Black Basketball Style," Radical History Review 55 (Winter 1993), 154-64; Gerald Gems, "Blocked Shot: The Development of Basketball in the African American Community of Chicago," Journal of Sport History 22 (Summer 1995), 135-48. Compare George's thesis to Burton Peretti's The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America (Urbana, 1992). For earlier roots to the Black aesthetic, see Roger Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African-American Culture in the Plantation South (New York, 1992). For a review of earlier literature that focussed on biological, not cultural, determinants of black performance, see David Wiggins, "'Great Speed But Little Stamina': The Historical Debate Over Black Athletic Superiority," Journal of Sport History 16 (Summer 1989), 158-85.
133. Nelson George, Elevating the Game: Black Men in Basketball (New York, 1992), 61-2. George's work fits into the newer "agency" model discussed in Joe William Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective (Bloomington, 1991); and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward a New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995), 283-95. For other views of the Black aesthetic, see David Leviatin, "The Evolution and Commodification of Black Basketball Style," Radical History Review 55 (Winter 1993), 154-64; Gerald Gems, "Blocked Shot: The Development of Basketball in the African American Community of Chicago," Journal of Sport History 22 (Summer 1995), 135-48. Compare George's thesis to Burton Peretti's The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America (Urbana, 1992). For earlier roots to the Black aesthetic, see Roger Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African-American Culture in the Plantation South (New York, 1992). For a review of earlier literature that focussed on biological, not cultural, determinants of black performance, see David Wiggins, "'Great Speed But Little Stamina': The Historical Debate Over Black Athletic Superiority," Journal of Sport History 16 (Summer 1989), 158-85.
134. Nelson George, Elevating the Game: Black Men in Basketball (New York, 1992), 61-2. George's work fits into the newer "agency" model discussed in Joe William Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective (Bloomington, 1991); and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward a New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995), 283-95. For other views of the Black aesthetic, see David Leviatin, "The Evolution and Commodification of Black Basketball Style," Radical History Review 55 (Winter 1993), 154-64; Gerald Gems, "Blocked Shot: The Development of Basketball in the African American Community of Chicago," Journal of Sport History 22 (Summer 1995), 135-48. Compare George's thesis to Burton Peretti's The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America (Urbana, 1992). For earlier roots to the Black aesthetic, see Roger Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African-American Culture in the Plantation South (New York, 1992). For a review of earlier literature that focussed on biological, not cultural, determinants of black performance, see David Wiggins, "'Great Speed But Little Stamina': The Historical Debate Over Black Athletic Superiority," Journal of Sport History 16 (Summer 1989), 158-85.
135. Nelson George, Elevating the Game: Black Men in Basketball (New York, 1992), 61-2. George's work fits into the newer "agency" model discussed in Joe William Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective (Bloomington, 1991); and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward a New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995), 283-95. For other views of the Black aesthetic, see David Leviatin, "The Evolution and Commodification of Black Basketball Style," Radical History Review 55 (Winter 1993), 154-64; Gerald Gems, "Blocked Shot: The Development of Basketball in the African American Community of Chicago," Journal of Sport History 22 (Summer 1995), 135-48. Compare George's thesis to Burton Peretti's The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America (Urbana, 1992). For earlier roots to the Black aesthetic, see Roger Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African-American Culture in the Plantation South (New York, 1992). For a review of earlier literature that focussed on biological, not cultural, determinants of black performance, see David Wiggins, "'Great Speed But Little Stamina': The Historical Debate Over Black Athletic Superiority," Journal of Sport History 16 (Summer 1989), 158-85.
136. Nelson George, Elevating the Game: Black Men in Basketball (New York, 1992), 61-2. George's work fits into the newer "agency" model discussed in Joe William Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective (Bloomington, 1991); and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward a New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995), 283-95. For other views of the Black aesthetic, see David Leviatin, "The Evolution and Commodification of Black Basketball Style," Radical History Review 55 (Winter 1993), 154-64; Gerald Gems, "Blocked Shot: The Development of Basketball in the African American Community of Chicago," Journal of Sport History 22 (Summer 1995), 135-48. Compare George's thesis to Burton Peretti's The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America (Urbana, 1992). For earlier roots to the Black aesthetic, see Roger Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African-American Culture in the Plantation South (New York, 1992). For a review of earlier literature that focussed on biological, not cultural, determinants of black performance, see David Wiggins, "'Great Speed But Little Stamina': The Historical Debate Over Black Athletic Superiority," Journal of Sport History 16 (Summer 1989), 158-85.
137. Nelson George, Elevating the Game: Black Men in Basketball (New York, 1992), 61-2. George's work fits into the newer "agency" model discussed in Joe William Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective (Bloomington, 1991); and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward a New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995), 283-95. For other views of the Black aesthetic, see David Leviatin, "The Evolution and Commodification of Black Basketball Style," Radical History Review 55 (Winter 1993), 154-64; Gerald Gems, "Blocked Shot: The Development of Basketball in the African American Community of Chicago," Journal of Sport History 22 (Summer 1995), 135-48. Compare George's thesis to Burton Peretti's The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America (Urbana, 1992). For earlier roots to the Black aesthetic, see Roger Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African-American Culture in the Plantation South (New York, 1992). For a review of earlier literature that focussed on biological, not cultural, determinants of black performance, see David Wiggins, "'Great Speed But Little Stamina': The Historical Debate Over Black Athletic Superiority," Journal of Sport History 16 (Summer 1989), 158-85.
138. George, Elevating the Game, 51-56, 95-102; Darcy Frey, The Last Shot: City Streets, Basketball Dreams (New York, 1995). For earlier looks at black "style," see Arthur Ashe, A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African-American Athlete 3 vols. (New York, 1988); Pete Axthelm, The City Game (New York, 1970); Jeff Greenfield, "The Black and White Truth About Basketball," Esquire (October 1975), 170-1, 248. For a call to balance black-white, rural-urban negotiations (and a critique of Peretti), see Ronald Rodano, "Jazz, Modernism, and the Black Creative Tradition," Reviews in American History 21 (December 1993), 671-76.
139. George, Elevating the Game, 51-56, 95-102; Darcy Frey, The Last Shot: City Streets, Basketball Dreams (New York, 1995). For earlier looks at black "style," see Arthur Ashe, A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African-American Athlete 3 vols. (New York, 1988); Pete Axthelm, The City Game (New York, 1970); Jeff Greenfield, "The Black and White Truth About Basketball," Esquire (October 1975), 170-1, 248. For a call to balance black-white, rural-urban negotiations (and a critique of Peretti), see Ronald Rodano, "Jazz, Modernism, and the Black Creative Tradition," Reviews in American History 21 (December 1993), 671-76.
140. George, Elevating the Game, 51-56, 95-102; Darcy Frey, The Last Shot: City Streets, Basketball Dreams (New York, 1995). For earlier looks at black "style," see Arthur Ashe, A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African-American Athlete 3 vols. (New York, 1988); Pete Axthelm, The City Game (New York, 1970); Jeff Greenfield, "The Black and White Truth About Basketball," Esquire (October 1975), 170-1, 248. For a call to balance black-white, rural-urban negotiations (and a critique of Peretti), see Ronald Rodano, "Jazz, Modernism, and the Black Creative Tradition," Reviews in American History 21 (December 1993), 671-76.
141. George, Elevating the Game, 51-56, 95-102; Darcy Frey, The Last Shot: City Streets, Basketball Dreams (New York, 1995). For earlier looks at black "style," see Arthur Ashe, A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African-American Athlete 3 vols. (New York, 1988); Pete Axthelm, The City Game (New York, 1970); Jeff Greenfield, "The Black and White Truth About Basketball," Esquire (October 1975), 170-1, 248. For a call to balance black-white, rural-urban negotiations (and a critique of Peretti), see Ronald Rodano, "Jazz, Modernism, and the Black Creative Tradition," Reviews in American History 21 (December 1993), 671-76.
142. George, Elevating the Game, 51-56, 95-102; Darcy Frey, The Last Shot: City Streets, Basketball Dreams (New York, 1995). For earlier looks at black "style," see Arthur Ashe, A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African-American Athlete 3 vols. (New York, 1988); Pete Axthelm, The City Game (New York, 1970); Jeff Greenfield, "The Black and White Truth About Basketball," Esquire (October 1975), 170-1, 248. For a call to balance black-white, rural-urban negotiations (and a critique of Peretti), see Ronald Rodano, "Jazz, Modernism, and the Black Creative Tradition," Reviews in American History 21 (December 1993), 671-76.
143. George, Elevating the Game, 51-56, 95-102; Darcy Frey, The Last Shot: City Streets, Basketball Dreams (New York, 1995). For earlier looks at black "style," see Arthur Ashe, A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African-American Athlete 3 vols. (New York, 1988); Pete Axthelm, The City Game (New York, 1970); Jeff Greenfield, "The Black and White Truth About Basketball," Esquire (October 1975), 170-1, 248. For a call to balance black-white, rural-urban negotiations (and a critique of Peretti), see Ronald Rodano, "Jazz, Modernism, and the Black Creative Tradition," Reviews in American History 21 (December 1993), 671-76.
144. Patrick Miller, "Homo Faber-Homo Ludens: Sport History and the Working Class," International Labor and Working Class History 44 (Fall 1993), 79-94. See also Donald Mrozek, Sport and American Mentality, 1880-1910 (Knoxville, 1984); Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order (Champaign, IL, 1990). The literature on sport, gender, and body culture is thoroughly reviewed in Patricia Vertinsky, "Gender Relations, Womens History and Sport History," Journal of Sport History 21 (Spring 1994), 1-25; and Roberta Park, "A Decade of the Body: Researching and Writing about the History of Health, Fitness, Exercise, and Sport," ibid., 59-82. See also Susan Birrell and Cheryl Cole, eds., Women, Sport, and Culture (Champaign, IL, 1994); and the special "gender" issue of Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991).
145. Patrick Miller, "Homo Faber-Homo Ludens: Sport History and the Working Class," International Labor and Working Class History 44 (Fall 1993), 79-94. See also Donald Mrozek, Sport and American Mentality, 1880-1910 (Knoxville, 1984); Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order (Champaign, IL, 1990). The literature on sport, gender, and body culture is thoroughly reviewed in Patricia Vertinsky, "Gender Relations, Womens History and Sport History," Journal of Sport History 21 (Spring 1994), 1-25; and Roberta Park, "A Decade of the Body: Researching and Writing about the History of Health, Fitness, Exercise, and Sport," ibid., 59-82. See also Susan Birrell and Cheryl Cole, eds., Women, Sport, and Culture (Champaign, IL, 1994); and the special "gender" issue of Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991).
146. Patrick Miller, "Homo Faber-Homo Ludens: Sport History and the Working Class," International Labor and Working Class History 44 (Fall 1993), 79-94. See also Donald Mrozek, Sport and American Mentality, 1880-1910 (Knoxville, 1984); Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order (Champaign, IL, 1990). The literature on sport, gender, and body culture is thoroughly reviewed in Patricia Vertinsky, "Gender Relations, Womens History and Sport History," Journal of Sport History 21 (Spring 1994), 1-25; and Roberta Park, "A Decade of the Body: Researching and Writing about the History of Health, Fitness, Exercise, and Sport," ibid., 59-82. See also Susan Birrell and Cheryl Cole, eds., Women, Sport, and Culture (Champaign, IL, 1994); and the special "gender" issue of Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991).
147. Patrick Miller, "Homo Faber-Homo Ludens: Sport History and the Working Class," International Labor and Working Class History 44 (Fall 1993), 79-94. See also Donald Mrozek, Sport and American Mentality, 1880-1910 (Knoxville, 1984); Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order (Champaign, IL, 1990). The literature on sport, gender, and body culture is thoroughly reviewed in Patricia Vertinsky, "Gender Relations, Womens History and Sport History," Journal of Sport History 21 (Spring 1994), 1-25; and Roberta Park, "A Decade of the Body: Researching and Writing about the History of Health, Fitness, Exercise, and Sport," ibid., 59-82. See also Susan Birrell and Cheryl Cole, eds., Women, Sport, and Culture (Champaign, IL, 1994); and the special "gender" issue of Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991).
148. Patrick Miller, "Homo Faber-Homo Ludens: Sport History and the Working Class," International Labor and Working Class History 44 (Fall 1993), 79-94. See also Donald Mrozek, Sport and American Mentality, 1880-1910 (Knoxville, 1984); Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order (Champaign, IL, 1990). The literature on sport, gender, and body culture is thoroughly reviewed in Patricia Vertinsky, "Gender Relations, Womens History and Sport History," Journal of Sport History 21 (Spring 1994), 1-25; and Roberta Park, "A Decade of the Body: Researching and Writing about the History of Health, Fitness, Exercise, and Sport," ibid., 59-82. See also Susan Birrell and Cheryl Cole, eds., Women, Sport, and Culture (Champaign, IL, 1994); and the special "gender" issue of Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991).
149. Patrick Miller, "Homo Faber-Homo Ludens: Sport History and the Working Class," International Labor and Working Class History 44 (Fall 1993), 79-94. See also Donald Mrozek, Sport and American Mentality, 1880-1910 (Knoxville, 1984); Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order (Champaign, IL, 1990). The literature on sport, gender, and body culture is thoroughly reviewed in Patricia Vertinsky, "Gender Relations, Womens History and Sport History," Journal of Sport History 21 (Spring 1994), 1-25; and Roberta Park, "A Decade of the Body: Researching and Writing about the History of Health, Fitness, Exercise, and Sport," ibid., 59-82. See also Susan Birrell and Cheryl Cole, eds., Women, Sport, and Culture (Champaign, IL, 1994); and the special "gender" issue of Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991).
150. Patrick Miller, "Homo Faber-Homo Ludens: Sport History and the Working Class," International Labor and Working Class History 44 (Fall 1993), 79-94. See also Donald Mrozek, Sport and American Mentality, 1880-1910 (Knoxville, 1984); Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order (Champaign, IL, 1990). The literature on sport, gender, and body culture is thoroughly reviewed in Patricia Vertinsky, "Gender Relations, Womens History and Sport History," Journal of Sport History 21 (Spring 1994), 1-25; and Roberta Park, "A Decade of the Body: Researching and Writing about the History of Health, Fitness, Exercise, and Sport," ibid., 59-82. See also Susan Birrell and Cheryl Cole, eds., Women, Sport, and Culture (Champaign, IL, 1994); and the special "gender" issue of Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991).
151. Oriard, Reading Football, 191. The rituals and knowledge associated with football and baseball parallel those discussed in Mark Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989).
152. Oriard, Reading Football, 191. The rituals and knowledge associated with football and baseball parallel those discussed in Mark Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989).
153. Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill: Aspects of Women's Sports History in America, 1870-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1978), 184. The complexity of images is discussed in Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago, 1983). For baseball and gender, see Nasaw, Going Out; Adelman, A Sporting Time; M. Kimmel, "Baseball and Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, 55-65. For croquet, see Robert Lewis, "American Croquet in the 1860s: Playing the Game and Winning," Journal of Sport History 18 (Winter 1991), 365-86. For an excellent look at women's basketball, see Joan Huit and Marianna Trekell, eds., From Frailty to Final Four. A Century of Women's Basketball (Reston, VA, 1991).
154. Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill: Aspects of Women's Sports History in America, 1870-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1978), 184. The complexity of images is discussed in Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago, 1983). For baseball and gender, see Nasaw, Going Out; Adelman, A Sporting Time; M. Kimmel, "Baseball and Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, 55-65. For croquet, see Robert Lewis, "American Croquet in the 1860s: Playing the Game and Winning," Journal of Sport History 18 (Winter 1991), 365-86. For an excellent look at women's basketball, see Joan Huit and Marianna Trekell, eds., From Frailty to Final Four. A Century of Women's Basketball (Reston, VA, 1991).
155. Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill: Aspects of Women's Sports History in America, 1870-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1978), 184. The complexity of images is discussed in Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago, 1983). For baseball and gender, see Nasaw, Going Out; Adelman, A Sporting Time; M. Kimmel, "Baseball and Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, 55-65. For croquet, see Robert Lewis, "American Croquet in the 1860s: Playing the Game and Winning," Journal of Sport History 18 (Winter 1991), 365-86. For an excellent look at women's basketball, see Joan Huit and Marianna Trekell, eds., From Frailty to Final Four. A Century of Women's Basketball (Reston, VA, 1991).
156. Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill: Aspects of Women's Sports History in America, 1870-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1978), 184. The complexity of images is discussed in Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago, 1983). For baseball and gender, see Nasaw, Going Out; Adelman, A Sporting Time; M. Kimmel, "Baseball and Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, 55-65. For croquet, see Robert Lewis, "American Croquet in the 1860s: Playing the Game and Winning," Journal of Sport History 18 (Winter 1991), 365-86. For an excellent look at women's basketball, see Joan Huit and Marianna Trekell, eds., From Frailty to Final Four. A Century of Women's Basketball (Reston, VA, 1991).
157. Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill: Aspects of Women's Sports History in America, 1870-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1978), 184. The complexity of images is discussed in Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago, 1983). For baseball and gender, see Nasaw, Going Out; Adelman, A Sporting Time; M. Kimmel, "Baseball and Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, 55-65. For croquet, see Robert Lewis, "American Croquet in the 1860s: Playing the Game and Winning," Journal of Sport History 18 (Winter 1991), 365-86. For an excellent look at women's basketball, see Joan Huit and Marianna Trekell, eds., From Frailty to Final Four. A Century of Women's Basketball (Reston, VA, 1991).
158. Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill: Aspects of Women's Sports History in America, 1870-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1978), 184. The complexity of images is discussed in Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago, 1983). For baseball and gender, see Nasaw, Going Out; Adelman, A Sporting Time; M. Kimmel, "Baseball and Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, 55-65. For croquet, see Robert Lewis, "American Croquet in the 1860s: Playing the Game and Winning," Journal of Sport History 18 (Winter 1991), 365-86. For an excellent look at women's basketball, see Joan Huit and Marianna Trekell, eds., From Frailty to Final Four. A Century of Women's Basketball (Reston, VA, 1991).
159. Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill: Aspects of Women's Sports History in America, 1870-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1978), 184. The complexity of images is discussed in Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago, 1983). For baseball and gender, see Nasaw, Going Out; Adelman, A Sporting Time; M. Kimmel, "Baseball and Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Michael Messner and Donald Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, 55-65. For croquet, see Robert Lewis, "American Croquet in the 1860s: Playing the Game and Winning," Journal of Sport History 18 (Winter 1991), 365-86. For an excellent look at women's basketball, see Joan Huit and Marianna Trekell, eds., From Frailty to Final Four. A Century of Women's Basketball (Reston, VA, 1991).
160. Susan Cahn, Coming On Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth Century Women's Sport (New York, 1994).
161. Wills's quote in Larry Englemann, The Goddess and the American Girl (New York, 1988), 80.
162. Jan Todd has looked at earlier marginalized athletes in "The Mystery of Minerva," Iron Game History 1 (April 1990), 14-7.
163. Gerald Gems, "Working Class Women and Sport: An Untold Story," Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal 2 (Spring 1993), 17-30; Mary Lou LeCompte, Cowgirls of the Rodeo: Pioneer Professional Athletes (Urbana, 1993); Jan Todd, "Bernarr Macfadden: Reformer of Feminine Form," Journal of Sport History 14 (Spring 1987), 61-76.
164. Gerald Gems, "Working Class Women and Sport: An Untold Story," Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal 2 (Spring 1993), 17-30; Mary Lou LeCompte, Cowgirls of the Rodeo: Pioneer Professional Athletes (Urbana, 1993); Jan Todd, "Bernarr Macfadden: Reformer of Feminine Form," Journal of Sport History 14 (Spring 1987), 61-76.
165. Gerald Gems, "Working Class Women and Sport: An Untold Story," Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal 2 (Spring 1993), 17-30; Mary Lou LeCompte, Cowgirls of the Rodeo: Pioneer Professional Athletes (Urbana, 1993); Jan Todd, "Bernarr Macfadden: Reformer of Feminine Form," Journal of Sport History 14 (Spring 1987), 61-76.
166. LeCompte, Cowgirls, 126, 137. See also LeCompte's, "Home on the Range: Women in Professional Rodeo: 1929-1947," Journal of Sport History 17 (Winter 1990), 318-46.
167. LeCompte, Cowgirls, 126, 137. See also LeCompte's, "Home on the Range: Women in Professional Rodeo: 1929-1947," Journal of Sport History 17 (Winter 1990), 318-46.
168. Cahn, Coming On Strong, 142-8.
169. Ibid., 181, 253. For internal struggles among women's groups, see also Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill," and Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete"; Huit and Trekell, From Frailty. 48. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York, 1994). For an award-winning, liberal interpretation of progress, see Allen Guttmann, Women's Sport (New York, 1991). For a poignant recognition of collective memory loss, see Larry Engelmann's preface to The Goddess and the American Girl. Mark Dyreson looks at the 1920s in his "The Emergence of Consumer Culture and the Transformation of Physical Culture: American Sport in the 1920s," Journal of Sport History 16 (Winter 1989), 261-81. See also Stephen Pope, "Negotiating the Folk Highway of the Nation: Sport, Public Culture and American Identity, 1870-1940," Journal of Social History 27 (1993-1994), 327-40.
170. Ibid., 181, 253. For internal struggles among women's groups, see also Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill," and Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete"; Huit and Trekell, From Frailty. 48. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York, 1994). For an award-winning, liberal interpretation of progress, see Allen Guttmann, Women's Sport (New York, 1991). For a poignant recognition of collective memory loss, see Larry Engelmann's preface to The Goddess and the American Girl. Mark Dyreson looks at the 1920s in his "The Emergence of Consumer Culture and the Transformation of Physical Culture: American Sport in the 1920s," Journal of Sport History 16 (Winter 1989), 261-81. See also Stephen Pope, "Negotiating the Folk Highway of the Nation: Sport, Public Culture and American Identity, 1870-1940," Journal of Social History 27 (1993-1994), 327-40.
171. Ibid., 181, 253. For internal struggles among women's groups, see also Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill," and Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete"; Huit and Trekell, From Frailty. 48. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York, 1994). For an award-winning, liberal interpretation of progress, see Allen Guttmann, Women's Sport (New York, 1991). For a poignant recognition of collective memory loss, see Larry Engelmann's preface to The Goddess and the American Girl. Mark Dyreson looks at the 1920s in his "The Emergence of Consumer Culture and the Transformation of Physical Culture: American Sport in the 1920s," Journal of Sport History 16 (Winter 1989), 261-81. See also Stephen Pope, "Negotiating the Folk Highway of the Nation: Sport, Public Culture and American Identity, 1870-1940," Journal of Social History 27 (1993-1994), 327-40.
172. Ibid., 181, 253. For internal struggles among women's groups, see also Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill," and Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete"; Huit and Trekell, From Frailty. 48. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York, 1994). For an award-winning, liberal interpretation of progress, see Allen Guttmann, Women's Sport (New York, 1991). For a poignant recognition of collective memory loss, see Larry Engelmann's preface to The Goddess and the American Girl. Mark Dyreson looks at the 1920s in his "The Emergence of Consumer Culture and the Transformation of Physical Culture: American Sport in the 1920s," Journal of Sport History 16 (Winter 1989), 261-81. See also Stephen Pope, "Negotiating the Folk Highway of the Nation: Sport, Public Culture and American Identity, 1870-1940," Journal of Social History 27 (1993-1994), 327-40.
173. Ibid., 181, 253. For internal struggles among women's groups, see also Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill," and Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete"; Huit and Trekell, From Frailty. 48. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York, 1994). For an award-winning, liberal interpretation of progress, see Allen Guttmann, Women's Sport (New York, 1991). For a poignant recognition of collective memory loss, see Larry Engelmann's preface to The Goddess and the American Girl. Mark Dyreson looks at the 1920s in his "The Emergence of Consumer Culture and the Transformation of Physical Culture: American Sport in the 1920s," Journal of Sport History 16 (Winter 1989), 261-81. See also Stephen Pope, "Negotiating the Folk Highway of the Nation: Sport, Public Culture and American Identity, 1870-1940," Journal of Social History 27 (1993-1994), 327-40.
174. Ibid., 181, 253. For internal struggles among women's groups, see also Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill," and Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete"; Huit and Trekell, From Frailty. 48. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York, 1994). For an award-winning, liberal interpretation of progress, see Allen Guttmann, Women's Sport (New York, 1991). For a poignant recognition of collective memory loss, see Larry Engelmann's preface to The Goddess and the American Girl. Mark Dyreson looks at the 1920s in his "The Emergence of Consumer Culture and the Transformation of Physical Culture: American Sport in the 1920s," Journal of Sport History 16 (Winter 1989), 261-81. See also Stephen Pope, "Negotiating the Folk Highway of the Nation: Sport, Public Culture and American Identity, 1870-1940," Journal of Social History 27 (1993-1994), 327-40.
175. Ibid., 181, 253. For internal struggles among women's groups, see also Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill," and Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete"; Huit and Trekell, From Frailty. 48. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York, 1994). For an award-winning, liberal interpretation of progress, see Allen Guttmann, Women's Sport (New York, 1991). For a poignant recognition of collective memory loss, see Larry Engelmann's preface to The Goddess and the American Girl. Mark Dyreson looks at the 1920s in his "The Emergence of Consumer Culture and the Transformation of Physical Culture: American Sport in the 1920s," Journal of Sport History 16 (Winter 1989), 261-81. See also Stephen Pope, "Negotiating the Folk Highway of the Nation: Sport, Public Culture and American Identity, 1870-1940," Journal of Social History 27 (1993-1994), 327-40.
176. Ibid., 181, 253. For internal struggles among women's groups, see also
177. Ibid., 181, 253. For internal struggles among women's groups, see also Stephanie Twin, "Jock and Jill," and Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Cindy Himes, "The Female Athlete"; Huit and Trekell, From Frailty. 48. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York, 1994). For an award-winning, liberal interpretation of progress, see Allen Guttmann, Women's Sport (New York, 1991). For a poignant recognition of collective memory loss, see Larry Engelmann's preface to The Goddess and the American Girl. Mark Dyreson looks at the 1920s in his "The Emergence of Consumer Culture and the Transformation of Physical Culture: American Sport in the 1920s," Journal of Sport History 16 (Winter 1989), 261-81. See also Stephen Pope, "Negotiating the Folk Highway of the Nation: Sport, Public Culture and American Identity, 1870-1940," Journal of Social History 27 (1993-1994), 327-40.
178. For diffusion models, see Adelman, A Sporting Time; Guy Lewis "The American Intercollegiate Football Spectacle, 1869-1917" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, 1964); Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports; Albert Applin, "From Muscular Christi-anity to the Marketplace: The History of Men's and Boy's Basketball in the United States, 1891-1957" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1982).
179. For diffusion models, see Adelman, A Sporting Time; Guy Lewis "The American Intercollegiate Football Spectacle, 1869-1917" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, 1964); Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports; Albert Applin, "From Muscular Christi-anity to the Marketplace: The History of Men's and Boy's Basketball in the United States, 1891-1957" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1982).
180. For diffusion models, see Adelman, A Sporting Time; Guy Lewis "The American Intercollegiate Football Spectacle, 1869-1917" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, 1964); Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports; Albert Applin, "From Muscular Christi-anity to the Marketplace: The History of Men's and Boy's Basketball in the United States, 1891-1957" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1982).
181. For diffusion models, see Adelman, A Sporting Time; Guy Lewis "The American Intercollegiate Football Spectacle, 1869-1917" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, 1964); Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports; Albert Applin, "From Muscular Christi-anity to the Marketplace: The History of Men's and Boy's Basketball in the United States, 1891-1957" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1982).
182. Nancy Struna, People of Prowess: Sport, Leisure, and Labor in Early Anglo-America (Urbana, 1996); Linda Borish, "'Was Woman's Constitution Less Robust?': Farm Women and Physical Health in the Agricultural Press, 1820-1870," Canadian Journal of History of Sport 25 (May 1994), 4; and "Farm Females, Fitness, and the Ideology of Physical Health in Antebellum New England," Agricultural History 64 (Summer 1990), 17-30.
183. Nancy Struna, People of Prowess: Sport, Leisure, and Labor in Early Anglo-America (Urbana, 1996); Linda Borish, "'Was Woman's Constitution Less Robust?': Farm Women and Physical Health in the Agricultural Press, 1820-1870," Canadian Journal of History of Sport 25 (May 1994), 4; and "Farm Females, Fitness, and the Ideology of Physical Health in Antebellum New England," Agricultural History 64 (Summer 1990), 17-30.
184. Nancy Struna, People of Prowess: Sport, Leisure, and Labor in Early Anglo-America (Urbana, 1996); Linda Borish, "'Was Woman's Constitution Less Robust?': Farm Women and Physical Health in the Agricultural Press, 1820-1870," Canadian Journal of History of Sport 25 (May 1994), 4; and "Farm Females, Fitness, and the Ideology of Physical Health in Antebellum New England," Agricultural History 64 (Summer 1990), 17-30.
185. See also Scott Martin, Killing Time: Leisure and Culture in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pittsburgh, 1995).
186. Contemporary sports regions are described in John Rooney and Richard Pillsbury, Atlas of American Sport (New York, 1992).
187. Benjamin Hunnicutt, "Sports" in Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, eds., Encyclopedia of Southern Culture (Chapel Hill, 1989), 1239. Related entries in the Encyclopedia do not contradict Hunnicutt. For an excellent look at rural opposition to urban sport, see Don Kirschner, City and Country: Rural Responses to Urbanization in the 1920s (Westport, 1970). On the South and baseball, see Kenneth Greenburg, Honor and Slavery (Princeton, 1996). For a more expansive analysis of southern styles, see Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1990).
188. Benjamin Hunnicutt, "Sports" in Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, eds., Encyclopedia of Southern Culture (Chapel Hill, 1989), 1239. Related entries in the Encyclopedia do not contradict Hunnicutt. For an excellent look at rural opposition to urban sport, see Don Kirschner, City and Country: Rural Responses to Urbanization in the 1920s (Westport, 1970). On the South and baseball, see Kenneth Greenburg, Honor and Slavery (Princeton, 1996). For a more expansive analysis of southern styles, see Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1990).
189. Benjamin Hunnicutt, "Sports" in Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, eds., Encyclopedia of Southern Culture (Chapel Hill, 1989), 1239. Related entries in the Encyclopedia do not contradict Hunnicutt. For an excellent look at rural opposition to urban sport, see Don Kirschner, City and Country: Rural Responses to Urbanization in the 1920s (Westport, 1970). On the South and baseball, see Kenneth Greenburg, Honor and Slavery (Princeton, 1996). For a more expansive analysis of southern styles, see Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1990).
190. Benjamin Hunnicutt, "Sports" in Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, eds., Encyclopedia of Southern Culture (Chapel Hill, 1989), 1239. Related entries in the Encyclopedia do not contradict Hunnicutt. For an excellent look at rural opposition to urban sport, see Don Kirschner, City and Country: Rural Responses to Urbanization in the 1920s (Westport, 1970). On the South and baseball, see Kenneth Greenburg, Honor and Slavery (Princeton, 1996). For a more expansive analysis of southern styles, see Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1990).
191. Benjamin Hunnicutt, "Sports" in Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, eds., Encyclopedia of Southern Culture (Chapel Hill, 1989), 1239. Related entries in the Encyclopedia do not contradict Hunnicutt. For an excellent look at rural opposition to urban sport, see Don Kirschner, City and Country: Rural Responses to Urbanization in the 1920s (Westport, 1970). On the South and baseball, see Kenneth Greenburg, Honor and Slavery (Princeton, 1996). For a more expansive analysis of southern styles, see Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1990).
192. Stephen Fox, Big Leagues: Professional Baseball, Football, and Basketball in National Memory (New York, 1994), 16-32. A thoughtful but ahistorical approach to urban/rural styles of basketball is Donal Carlston, "An Environmental Explanation for Race Differences in Basketball Performance," in Richard Lapchick, ed., Fractured Focus: Sport as a Reflection of Society (Lexington, MA, 1986), 87-110. For a different view of urban culture "civilizing" rural styles, see James Warnock, "Entrepreneurs and Progressives: Baseball in the Northwest, 1900-1901," Pacific Northwest Quarterly (July 1991), 92-100.
193. Stephen Fox, Big Leagues: Professional Baseball, Football, and Basketball in National Memory (New York, 1994), 16-32. A thoughtful but ahistorical approach to urban/rural styles of basketball is Donal Carlston, "An Environmental Explanation for Race Differences in Basketball Performance," in Richard Lapchick, ed., Fractured Focus: Sport as a Reflection of Society (Lexington, MA, 1986), 87-110. For a different view of urban culture "civilizing" rural styles, see James Warnock, "Entrepreneurs and Progressives: Baseball in the Northwest, 1900-1901," Pacific Northwest Quarterly (July 1991), 92-100.
194. Stephen Fox, Big Leagues: Professional Baseball, Football, and Basketball in National Memory (New York, 1994), 16-32. A thoughtful but ahistorical approach to urban/rural styles of basketball is Donal Carlston, "An Environmental Explanation for Race Differences in Basketball Performance," in Richard Lapchick, ed., Fractured Focus: Sport as a Reflection of Society (Lexington, MA, 1986), 87-110. For a different view of urban culture "civilizing" rural styles, see James Warnock, "Entrepreneurs and Progressives: Baseball in the Northwest, 1900-1901," Pacific Northwest Quarterly (July 1991), 92-100.
195. LeCompte, Cowgirls, 20; Jan Beran, From Six-On-Six to Full-Court Press: A Century of Iowa Girls'Basketball (Ames, IA, 1993), xiv, 41; Engelmann, The Goddess and American Girl, 64-5; Cindy Himes Gissendanner cites similar countercurrents in "African-American Women and Competitive Sport, 1920-1960," in Birrell and Cole (eds.), Women, Sport, and Culture, 81-92.
196. LeCompte, Cowgirls, 20; Jan Beran, From Six-On-Six to Full-Court Press: A Century of Iowa Girls'Basketball (Ames, IA, 1993), xiv, 41; Engelmann, The Goddess and American Girl, 64-5; Cindy Himes Gissendanner cites similar countercurrents in "African-American Women and Competitive Sport, 1920-1960," in Birrell and Cole (eds.), Women, Sport, and Culture, 81-92.
197. LeCompte, Cowgirls, 20; Jan Beran, From Six-On-Six to Full-Court Press: A Century of Iowa Girls'Basketball (Ames, IA, 1993), xiv, 41; Engelmann, The Goddess and American Girl, 64-5; Cindy Himes Gissendanner cites similar countercurrents in "African-American Women and Competitive Sport, 1920-1960," in Birrell and Cole (eds.), Women, Sport, and Culture, 81-92.
198. LeCompte, Cowgirls, 20; Jan Beran, From Six-On-Six to Full-Court Press: A Century of Iowa Girls'Basketball (Ames, IA, 1993), xiv, 41; Engelmann, The Goddess and American Girl, 64-5; Cindy Himes Gissendanner cites similar countercurrents in "African-American Women and Competitive Sport, 1920-1960," in Birrell and Cole (eds.), Women, Sport, and Culture, 81-92.
199. Andy Doyle, " 'Causes Won, Not Lost': College Football and the Modernization of the American South," International Journal of the History of Sport 11 (August 1994), 247.
200. Hays, "History of Urbanized Society," 24. For a recent case study of one sports entrepreneur trying to steer through complex urbanizing trends, see Donald Fisher, "The Rochester Royals and the Transformation of Professional Basketball, 1945-57," International Journal of History of Sport 10 (April 1993), 20-48.
201. Hays, "History of Urbanized Society," 24. For a recent case study of one sports entrepreneur trying to steer through complex urbanizing trends, see Donald Fisher, "The Rochester Royals and the Transformation of Professional Basketball, 1945-57," International Journal of History of Sport 10 (April 1993), 20-48.