Reforming dysfunctional institutions through democratisation? Reflections on Ghana

Journal of Modern African Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 603-646

  Sandbrook, Richard ^a   Oelbaum, Jay ^b  

^a Department of Political Science ^*

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRATISATION; INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE; REFORM PROCESS;

GHANA;

EID: 0031394828     PISSN: 0022278X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022278X97002565     Document Type: Article

References (155)

1. See, for example, World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: from crisis to sustainable growth. A Long-Term Perspective Study (Washington, DC, 1989); Barbara Grosh, 'Through the Structural Adjustment Minefield: politics in an era of economic liberalization', in Jennifer A. Widner (ed.), Economic Change and Political Liberalisation in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore and London, 1994), pp. 29-46; G. K. Helleiner, 'From Adjustment to Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: consensus and continuing conflict', in Giovanni Andrea Cornia and Helleiner (eds.), From Adjustment to Development in Africa (New York, 1994), pp. 3-24; Paul Kennedy, 'Political Barriers to African Capitalism', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 32, 2, June 1994, pp. 191-213; David C. Sahn, 'Economic Crisis and Policy Reform in Africa: lessons learned and implications for policy', in Sahn (ed.J, Adjusting to Policy Failure in Africa (Ithaca, 1994), pp. 381-4; Michael Chege, 'Sub-Saharan Africa: underdevelopment's last stand', in Barbara Stallings (ed.), Global Change, Regional Response: the new international context of development (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 309-45;
2. See, for example, World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: from crisis to sustainable growth. A Long-Term Perspective Study (Washington, DC, 1989); Barbara Grosh, 'Through the Structural Adjustment Minefield: politics in an era of economic liberalization', in Jennifer A. Widner (ed.), Economic Change and Political Liberalisation in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore and London, 1994), pp. 29-46; G. K. Helleiner, 'From Adjustment to Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: consensus and continuing conflict', in Giovanni Andrea Cornia and Helleiner (eds.), From Adjustment to Development in Africa (New York, 1994), pp. 3-24; Paul Kennedy, 'Political Barriers to African Capitalism', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 32, 2, June 1994, pp. 191-213; David C. Sahn, 'Economic Crisis and Policy Reform in Africa: lessons learned and implications for policy', in Sahn (ed.J, Adjusting to Policy Failure in Africa (Ithaca, 1994), pp. 381-4; Michael Chege, 'Sub-Saharan Africa: underdevelopment's last stand', in Barbara Stallings (ed.), Global Change, Regional Response: the new international context of development (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 309-45;
3. See, for example, World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: from crisis to sustainable growth. A Long-Term Perspective Study (Washington, DC, 1989); Barbara Grosh, 'Through the Structural Adjustment Minefield: politics in an era of economic liberalization', in Jennifer A. Widner (ed.), Economic Change and Political Liberalisation in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore and London, 1994), pp. 29-46; G. K. Helleiner, 'From Adjustment to Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: consensus and continuing conflict', in Giovanni Andrea Cornia and Helleiner (eds.), From Adjustment to Development in Africa (New York, 1994), pp. 3-24; Paul Kennedy, 'Political Barriers to African Capitalism', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 32, 2, June 1994, pp. 191-213; David C. Sahn, 'Economic Crisis and Policy Reform in Africa: lessons learned and implications for policy', in Sahn (ed.J, Adjusting to Policy Failure in Africa (Ithaca, 1994), pp. 381-4; Michael Chege, 'Sub-Saharan Africa: underdevelopment's last stand', in Barbara Stallings (ed.), Global Change, Regional Response: the new international context of development (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 309-45;
4. See, for example, World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: from crisis to sustainable growth. A Long-Term Perspective Study (Washington, DC, 1989); Barbara Grosh, 'Through the Structural Adjustment Minefield: politics in an era of economic liberalization', in Jennifer A. Widner (ed.), Economic Change and Political Liberalisation in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore and London, 1994), pp. 29-46; G. K. Helleiner, 'From Adjustment to Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: consensus and continuing conflict', in Giovanni Andrea Cornia and Helleiner (eds.), From Adjustment to Development in Africa (New York, 1994), pp. 3-24; Paul Kennedy, 'Political Barriers to African Capitalism', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 32, 2, June 1994, pp. 191-213; David C. Sahn, 'Economic Crisis and Policy Reform in Africa: lessons learned and implications for policy', in Sahn (ed.J, Adjusting to Policy Failure in Africa (Ithaca, 1994), pp. 381-4; Michael Chege, 'Sub-Saharan Africa: underdevelopment's last stand', in Barbara Stallings (ed.), Global Change, Regional Response: the new international context of development (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 309-45;
5. See, for example, World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: from crisis to sustainable growth. A Long-Term Perspective Study (Washington, DC, 1989); Barbara Grosh, 'Through the Structural Adjustment Minefield: politics in an era of economic liberalization', in Jennifer A. Widner (ed.), Economic Change and Political Liberalisation in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore and London, 1994), pp. 29-46; G. K. Helleiner, 'From Adjustment to Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: consensus and continuing conflict', in Giovanni Andrea Cornia and Helleiner (eds.), From Adjustment to Development in Africa (New York, 1994), pp. 3-24; Paul Kennedy, 'Political Barriers to African Capitalism', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 32, 2, June 1994, pp. 191-213; David C. Sahn, 'Economic Crisis and Policy Reform in Africa: lessons learned and implications for policy', in Sahn (ed.J, Adjusting to Policy Failure in Africa (Ithaca, 1994), pp. 381-4; Michael Chege, 'Sub-Saharan Africa: underdevelopment's last stand', in Barbara Stallings (ed.), Global Change, Regional Response: the new international context of development (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 309-45;
6. See, for example, World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: from crisis to sustainable growth. A Long-Term Perspective Study (Washington, DC, 1989); Barbara Grosh, 'Through the Structural Adjustment Minefield: politics in an era of economic liberalization', in Jennifer A. Widner (ed.), Economic Change and Political Liberalisation in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore and London, 1994), pp. 29-46; G. K. Helleiner, 'From Adjustment to Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: consensus and continuing conflict', in Giovanni Andrea Cornia and Helleiner (eds.), From Adjustment to Development in Africa (New York, 1994), pp. 3-24; Paul Kennedy, 'Political Barriers to African Capitalism', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 32, 2, June 1994, pp. 191-213; David C. Sahn, 'Economic Crisis and Policy Reform in Africa: lessons learned and implications for policy', in Sahn (ed.J, Adjusting to Policy Failure in Africa (Ithaca, 1994), pp. 381-4; Michael Chege, 'Sub-Saharan Africa: underdevelopment's last stand', in Barbara Stallings (ed.), Global Change, Regional Response: the new international context of development (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 309-45;
7. Tony Killick, 'Economic Inflexibility in Africa: evidence and causes', in Killick (ed.), The Flexible Economy: causes and consequences of the adaptability of national economies (London, 1995), pp. 154-96;
8. Kidane Mengisteab, 'A Partnership of the State and the Market in African Development', in Mengisteab and Ikubolajeh Logan (eds.), Beyond Economic Liberalization in Africa: structural adjustment and the alternatives (London, 1995), pp. 163-81;
9. and Sayre P. Schatz, 'The World Bank's Fundamental Misconception in Africa', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 34, 2, June 1996, pp. 239-47.
10. This article derives from four periods of field work: in 1993, 1994, 1996, and 1997. Much of the research involved interviews (for which anonymity was a condition) with political leaders, public servants, and those knowledgeable about developments in civil society.
11. Schatz, loc. cit. p. 242.
12. 4 Guillermo O'Donnell, 'Illusions about Consolidation', in Journal of Democracy (Baltimore), 7, 2, 1996, p. 36.
13. For more details, see Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Recovery (Cambridge, 1993), ch. 2.
14. Prebendal strategies of political management directly contradict the requisites of productive economic activity', as tersely observed by Peter M. Lewis, 'Economic Statism, Private Capital, and the Dilemmas of Accumulation in Nigeria', in World Development (Oxford), 22, 1994, p. 440.
15. A 'rent' is a windfall gain, that is the return which a firm or individual receives from a transaction in excess of that which would have been obtained in an 'arms length' market situation.
16. Institutional reforms are a necessary but obviously not sufficient condition for capitalist development where institutions unconducive to market relations hold sway.
17. Goran Hyden, No Shortcuts to Progress: African development management in perspective (London, 1983), ch. 8.
18. Cf. R. Quentin Grafton and Dane Rowlands, 'Development Impeding Institutions: the political economy of Haiti', in Canadian Journal of Development Studies (Ottawa), 17, 2, 1996, pp. 270-2.
19. E. K. Trimberger, Revolution from Above: military bureaucrats and development in Japan, Turkey, Egypt and Peru (New Brunswick, 1978).
20. On the World Bank's approach to governance, see Sub-Saharan Africa, 1989, and Governance and Development (Washington, DC, 1992). Also David Williams and Tom Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and Liberal Theory', in Political Studies (Oxford), 42, 1, 1994, pp. 84-100.
21. On the World Bank's approach to governance, see Sub-Saharan Africa, 1989, and Governance and Development (Washington, DC, 1992). Also David Williams and Tom Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and Liberal Theory', in Political Studies (Oxford), 42, 1, 1994, pp. 84-100.
22. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa, 1989; Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Cultural Change, and Empowerment', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4, December 1992, pp. 543-67; John Healy, Richard Ketley, and Mark Robinson, 'Will Political Reform Bring About Improved Economic Management in Sub-Saharan Africa?', in IDS Bulletin (Brighton), 24, 1, 1993, pp. 31-8; Adrian Leftwich, 'Governance, Democracy and Development in the Third World', in Third World Quarterly (Abingdon), 14, 3, 1993, pp. 605-24; and Nicolas van de Walle, 'Crisis and Opportunity in Africa', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, Economic Reform and Democracy (Baltimore, 1995), pp. 153-66.
23. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa, 1989; Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Cultural Change, and Empowerment', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4, December 1992, pp. 543-67; John Healy, Richard Ketley, and Mark Robinson, 'Will Political Reform Bring About Improved Economic Management in Sub-Saharan Africa?', in IDS Bulletin (Brighton), 24, 1, 1993, pp. 31-8; Adrian Leftwich, 'Governance, Democracy and Development in the Third World', in Third World Quarterly (Abingdon), 14, 3, 1993, pp. 605-24; and Nicolas van de Walle, 'Crisis and Opportunity in Africa', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, Economic Reform and Democracy (Baltimore, 1995), pp. 153-66.
24. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa, 1989; Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Cultural Change, and Empowerment', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4, December 1992, pp. 543-67; John Healy, Richard Ketley, and Mark Robinson, 'Will Political Reform Bring About Improved Economic Management in Sub-Saharan Africa?', in IDS Bulletin (Brighton), 24, 1, 1993, pp. 31-8; Adrian Leftwich, 'Governance, Democracy and Development in the Third World', in Third World Quarterly (Abingdon), 14, 3, 1993, pp. 605-24; and Nicolas van de Walle, 'Crisis and Opportunity in Africa', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, Economic Reform and Democracy (Baltimore, 1995), pp. 153-66.
25. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa, 1989; Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Cultural Change, and Empowerment', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4, December 1992, pp. 543-67; John Healy, Richard Ketley, and Mark Robinson, 'Will Political Reform Bring About Improved Economic Management in Sub-Saharan Africa?', in IDS Bulletin (Brighton), 24, 1, 1993, pp. 31-8; Adrian Leftwich, 'Governance, Democracy and Development in the Third World', in Third World Quarterly (Abingdon), 14, 3, 1993, pp. 605-24; and Nicolas van de Walle, 'Crisis and Opportunity in Africa', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, Economic Reform and Democracy (Baltimore, 1995), pp. 153-66.
26. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa, 1989; Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Cultural Change, and Empowerment', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4, December 1992, pp. 543-67; John Healy, Richard Ketley, and Mark Robinson, 'Will Political Reform Bring About Improved Economic Management in Sub-Saharan Africa?', in IDS Bulletin (Brighton), 24, 1, 1993, pp. 31-8; Adrian Leftwich, 'Governance, Democracy and Development in the Third World', in Third World Quarterly (Abingdon), 14, 3, 1993, pp. 605-24; and Nicolas van de Walle, 'Crisis and Opportunity in Africa', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, Economic Reform and Democracy (Baltimore, 1995), pp. 153-66.
27. 14 Atul Kohli, 'Democracy Amid Economic Orthodoxy: trends in developing countries', in Third World Quarterly, 14, 4, 1993, pp. 671-89; Guillermo O'Donnell, 'Delegative Democracy', in Journal of Democracy, 5, 1, 1994, pp. 55-69; and Thomas M. Callaghy, 'Africa: back to the future?', in Diamond and Plattner (eds.), op. cit. pp. 140-52.
28. 14 Atul Kohli, 'Democracy Amid Economic Orthodoxy: trends in developing countries', in Third World Quarterly, 14, 4, 1993, pp. 671-89; Guillermo O'Donnell, 'Delegative Democracy', in Journal of Democracy, 5, 1, 1994, pp. 55-69; and Thomas M. Callaghy, 'Africa: back to the future?', in Diamond and Plattner (eds.), op. cit. pp. 140-52.
29. 14 Atul Kohli, 'Democracy Amid Economic Orthodoxy: trends in developing countries', in Third World Quarterly, 14, 4, 1993, pp. 671-89; Guillermo O'Donnell, 'Delegative Democracy', in Journal of Democracy, 5, 1, 1994, pp. 55-69; and Thomas M. Callaghy, 'Africa: back to the future?', in Diamond and Plattner (eds.), op. cit. pp. 140-52.
30. Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle, 'Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa', in World Politics (Princeton), 46, 1994, pp. 453-89, contend that the less institutionalised and more personalistic an authoritarian régime, the more likely is the reemergence of clientelism, personalism, and corruption in the new democracy.
31. Ravi Kanbur, 'Welfare Economics, Political Economy, and Policy Reform in Ghana', Washington, DC, 1994, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 1381.
32. Tony Killick, Development Economics in Action: a study of economic policies in Ghana (London, 1978); R. H. Green, Ghana Country Study 1 (Helsinki, World Institute for Development Economics Research, 1987); John Toye, 'Ghana', in Paul Mosley, Jane Harrigan, and Toye (eds.), Aid and Power: the World Bank and policy-based lending, Vol. II (London, 1991), pp. 151-200; Douglas Rimmer, Staying Poor: Ghana's political economy, 1950-1990 (Oxford, 1992); and J. Clarke Leith and Michael Lofchie, 'The Political Economy of Structural Adjustment in Ghana', in Robert H. Bates and Anne Krueger (eds.), Political and Economic Interactions in Economic Policy Reform (Oxford, 1993).
33. Tony Killick, Development Economics in Action: a study of economic policies in Ghana (London, 1978); R. H. Green, Ghana Country Study 1 (Helsinki, World Institute for Development Economics Research, 1987); John Toye, 'Ghana', in Paul Mosley, Jane Harrigan, and Toye (eds.), Aid and Power: the World Bank and policy-based lending, Vol. II (London, 1991), pp. 151-200; Douglas Rimmer, Staying Poor: Ghana's political economy, 1950-1990 (Oxford, 1992); and J. Clarke Leith and Michael Lofchie, 'The Political Economy of Structural Adjustment in Ghana', in Robert H. Bates and Anne Krueger (eds.), Political and Economic Interactions in Economic Policy Reform (Oxford, 1993).
34. Tony Killick, Development Economics in Action: a study of economic policies in Ghana (London, 1978); R. H. Green, Ghana Country Study 1 (Helsinki, World Institute for Development Economics Research, 1987); John Toye, 'Ghana', in Paul Mosley, Jane Harrigan, and Toye (eds.), Aid and Power: the World Bank and policy-based lending, Vol. II (London, 1991), pp. 151-200; Douglas Rimmer, Staying Poor: Ghana's political economy, 1950-1990 (Oxford, 1992); and J. Clarke Leith and Michael Lofchie, 'The Political Economy of Structural Adjustment in Ghana', in Robert H. Bates and Anne Krueger (eds.), Political and Economic Interactions in Economic Policy Reform (Oxford, 1993).
35. Tony Killick, Development Economics in Action: a study of economic policies in Ghana (London, 1978); R. H. Green, Ghana Country Study 1 (Helsinki, World Institute for Development Economics Research, 1987); John Toye, 'Ghana', in Paul Mosley, Jane Harrigan, and Toye (eds.), Aid and Power: the World Bank and policy-based lending, Vol. II (London, 1991), pp. 151-200; Douglas Rimmer, Staying Poor: Ghana's political economy, 1950-1990 (Oxford, 1992); and J. Clarke Leith and Michael Lofchie, 'The Political Economy of Structural Adjustment in Ghana', in Robert H. Bates and Anne Krueger (eds.), Political and Economic Interactions in Economic Policy Reform (Oxford, 1993).
36. Tony Killick, Development Economics in Action: a study of economic policies in Ghana (London, 1978); R. H. Green, Ghana Country Study 1 (Helsinki, World Institute for Development Economics Research, 1987); John Toye, 'Ghana', in Paul Mosley, Jane Harrigan, and Toye (eds.), Aid and Power: the World Bank and policy-based lending, Vol. II (London, 1991), pp. 151-200; Douglas Rimmer, Staying Poor: Ghana's political economy, 1950-1990 (Oxford, 1992); and J. Clarke Leith and Michael Lofchie, 'The Political Economy of Structural Adjustment in Ghana', in Robert H. Bates and Anne Krueger (eds.), Political and Economic Interactions in Economic Policy Reform (Oxford, 1993).
37. A senior economic adviser to the President stated that 'Nkrumah informed us that if he permitted African business to grow it will grow to the extent of becoming a rival power to his and the party's prestige, and he would do anything to stop it which he actually did'. E. Ayeh Kumi, quoted in West Africa (London), March 1966.
38. Killick, Development Economics in Action, 1978, p. 246.
39. Martin Brownbridge and Augustine Fitz Gockel, 'The Impact of Financial Sector Policies on Banking in Ghana', Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, August 1996, Working Paper No. 38.
40. See, for example, Jeffrey Herbst, The Politics of Reform in Ghana, 1982-91 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Oxford, 1993).
41. Maxwell Owusu, Uses and Abuses of Political Power: a case study of continuity and change in the politics of Ghana (Chicago, 1970), and Victor T. Le Vine, Political Corruption: the Ghana case (Stanford, 1975).
42. Maxwell Owusu, Uses and Abuses of Political Power: a case study of continuity and change in the politics of Ghana (Chicago, 1970), and Victor T. Le Vine, Political Corruption: the Ghana case (Stanford, 1975).
43. International Monetary Fund, Ghana Selected Issues and Statistical Annex: background information to the Staff Report on the 1996 Article IV consultation (Washington, DC, 7 June 1996). The percentage lost because of reduced production is unclear, but it has been estimated that in some border areas at least 50 per cent of the crop was smuggled. See E. May, 'Exchange Controls and Parallel Market Economies in Sub-Saharan Africa', Washington, DC, 1985, World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 711.
44. International Monetary Fund, Ghana Selected Issues and Statistical Annex: background information to the Staff Report on the 1996 Article IV consultation (Washington, DC, 7 June 1996). The percentage lost because of reduced production is unclear, but it has been estimated that in some border areas at least 50 per cent of the crop was smuggled. See E. May, 'Exchange Controls and Parallel Market Economies in Sub-Saharan Africa', Washington, DC, 1985, World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 711.
45. D. L. Lindauer, O. A. Meesook, and P. Suebsaeng, 'Government Wage Policy in Africa', in The World Bank Research Observer (Washington, DC), 3, 1, 1988.
46. Green, op. cit. 1987, p. 14.
47. Yao Graham, 'From GTP to Assene: aspects of industrial working class struggles in Ghana, 1982-1986', in Emmanuel Hansen and Kwame A. Ninsin (eds.), The State, Development and Politics in Ghana (Dakar and London, 1989), pp. 43-72.
48. Green, op. cit. 1987, p. 27.
49. See Chad Leechor, 'Ghana: frontrunner in adjustment', in Ishrat Husain and Rashid Faruqee (eds.), Adjustment in Africa: lessons from country case studies (Washington, DC, 1994), pp. 153-92.
50. Graham, loc. cit.; Herbst, op. cit.; and Paul Nugent, Big Men, Small Boys and Politics in Ghana: power, ideology and the burden of history, 1982-1994 (London, 1995).
51. Graham, loc. cit.; Herbst, op. cit.; and Paul Nugent, Big Men, Small Boys and Politics in Ghana: power, ideology and the burden of history, 1982-1994 (London, 1995).
52. Graham, loc. cit.; Herbst, op. cit.; and Paul Nugent, Big Men, Small Boys and Politics in Ghana: power, ideology and the burden of history, 1982-1994 (London, 1995).
53. These included the National Investigation Committee which was empowered to investigate any person whose bank deposits exceeded 50,000 cedis, the Citizens Vetting Committee which vetted individuals whose lifestyles were considered to be incommensurate with their official incomes, and the People's Tribunals which were authorised both to try and punish corruption though they were not manned by lawyers. These had complete jurisdiction and could, and did, deliver the death sentence.
54. Roger Tangri, 'The Politics of Government-Business Relations in Ghana', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 1 March 1992, pp. 97-111.
55. Hyden, op. cit. 1983.
56. Kwame A. Ninsin, 'Some Problems in Ghana's Transition to Democratic Governance', in Africa Development (Dakar), 18, 2, 1993, pp. 5-22, and Nugent, op. cit. 1995.
57. Kwame A. Ninsin, 'Some Problems in Ghana's Transition to Democratic Governance', in Africa Development (Dakar), 18, 2, 1993, pp. 5-22, and Nugent, op. cit. 1995.
58. O'Donnell, loc. cit. 1994.
59. Gisela Geisler, 'Fair? What Has Fairness Got to Do with It? Vagaries of Election Observations and Democratic Standards', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 31, 4, December 1993, pp. 613-37.
60. See, for example, Richard Jeffries and Clare Thomas, 'The Ghanaian Elections of 1992', in African Affairs (London), 92, 368, July 1993, pp. 331-66, and Mike Oquaye, 'The Ghanaian Elections of 1992 - a Dissenting View', in ibid. 94, 375, April 1995, pp. 259-75.
61. See, for example, Richard Jeffries and Clare Thomas, 'The Ghanaian Elections of 1992', in African Affairs (London), 92, 368, July 1993, pp. 331-66, and Mike Oquaye, 'The Ghanaian Elections of 1992 - a Dissenting View', in ibid. 94, 375, April 1995, pp. 259-75.
62. New Patriotic Party, The Stolen Verdict: Ghana, November 1992 presidential elections (Accra, 1993).
63. Laurie Cooper, Fred Hayward, and Anthony Lee, Ghana: a pre-election assessment report (Washington, DC, International Foundation for Electoral Systems, 1992).
64. Daniel Green, 'Ghana's "Adjusted" Democracy', in Review of African Political Economy (Abingdon), 22, 66, December 1995, pp. 577-85.
65. Donald Rothchild, 'Rawlings and the Engineering of Legitimacy in Ghana', Conference on Democratisation and the 1992 Elections in Ghana, University of London, 5-6 August 1993, and Jeff Haynes, 'Sustainable Democracy in Ghana? Problems and Prospects', in Third World Quarterly, 14, 3, 1993, pp. 451-67.
66. Donald Rothchild, 'Rawlings and the Engineering of Legitimacy in Ghana', Conference on Democratisation and the 1992 Elections in Ghana, University of London, 5-6 August 1993, and Jeff Haynes, 'Sustainable Democracy in Ghana? Problems and Prospects', in Third World Quarterly, 14, 3, 1993, pp. 451-67.
67. Daniel Green, loc. cit. 1995, p. 580.
68. The independent press delighted in announcing new shipments of election 'goodies' as they arrived at Tema and allegedly cleared through customs by the NDC and its affiliates without the payment of import duties. Such reports often listed both the contents and the registration number of the containers. See, for example, the Ghanaian Chronicle (Accra), 25-28 April and 6-9 June 1996.
69. Financial Times (London), 9 July 1996.
70. Ghanaian Chronicle, 10 October 1996.
71. E. Gyimah-Boadi, 'Ghana: the challenges ahead', in Journal of Democracy, April 1997, p. 83.
72. Ghanaian Chronicle, 25-28 January and 18-21 April 1996.
73. Ibid. 18-21 April 1996.
74. Ibid. 15-18 November 1996. Reported also in Free Press and The Independent on the same date.
75. Ibid. 15-18 November 1996. Reported also in Free Press and The Independent on the same date.
76. Jeff Haynes, 'Ghana: from personalist to democratic rule', in John A. Wiseman (ed.), Democracy and Political Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (London and New York, 1995), p. 106.
77. Maxwell Owusu, 'Tradition and Transformation: democracy and the politics of popular power in Ghana', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 34, 2, June 1996, p. 341.
78. See, for example, Kojo T. Vieta, 'Non-Partisan Elections?', in West Africa (London), 14-20 March 1994, pp. 438-9, and Ghanaian Chornicle, 15-18 February 1996. As Gyimah-Boadi notes in loc. cit. p. 87, these fears are well founded in that many DCEs have held office since the PNDC days in the late 1980s.
79. See, for example, Kojo T. Vieta, 'Non-Partisan Elections?', in West Africa (London), 14-20 March 1994, pp. 438-9, and Ghanaian Chornicle, 15-18 February 1996. As Gyimah-Boadi notes in loc. cit. p. 87, these fears are well founded in that many DCEs have held office since the PNDC days in the late 1980s.
80. See, for example, Kojo T. Vieta, 'Non-Partisan Elections?', in West Africa (London), 14-20 March 1994, pp. 438-9, and Ghanaian Chornicle, 15-18 February 1996. As Gyimah-Boadi notes in loc. cit. p. 87, these fears are well founded in that many DCEs have held office since the PNDC days in the late 1980s.
81. Ian Gary, 'Confrontation, Co-operation or Co-optation: NGOs and the Ghanaian state during structural adjustment', in Review of African Political Economy, 23, 68, June 1996, pp. 149-68.
82. See Eboe Hutchful, 'Military Policy and Reform in Ghana', The Journal of Modern African Studies, 35, 2, June 1997, pp. 251-78, and a series of investigative pieces by The Statesman (Accra), especially in the issue of 12 June 1994, based on interviews with anonymous officers. It should be noted that this newspaper is owned by Nana Akufo-Addo, a leader of the opposition NPP.
83. See Eboe Hutchful, 'Military Policy and Reform in Ghana', The Journal of Modern African Studies, 35, 2, June 1997, pp. 251-78, and a series of investigative pieces by The Statesman (Accra), especially in the issue of 12 June 1994, based on interviews with anonymous officers. It should be noted that this newspaper is owned by Nana Akufo-Addo, a leader of the opposition NPP.
84. Kwesi Jonah, 'Elections in the Ahanta West Constituency and Its Capital', Conference on Democratisation and the 1992 Elections in Ghana, University of London, 5-6 August 1993, and Sam K. Asibuo, 'A Study of Governance in Ghana under Decentralization', School of Administration, University of Ghana, Legon, January 1994.
85. Kwesi Jonah, 'Elections in the Ahanta West Constituency and Its Capital', Conference on Democratisation and the 1992 Elections in Ghana, University of London, 5-6 August 1993, and Sam K. Asibuo, 'A Study of Governance in Ghana under Decentralization', School of Administration, University of Ghana, Legon, January 1994.
86. Confidential interview, National Commission for Civic Education, June 1994.
87. See, for example, René Lemarchand, 'Report of a Democracy/Governance Consultancy to Ghana: local government', US Agency for International Development, Accra, January 1994.
88. Gary, loc. cit. 1996, p. 161.
89. Reported in The Pioneer (Kumasi), 9 February 1994.
90. Ghanaian Chronicle, 6-8 May 1996.
91. Ibid. 26 August 1996.
92. Republic of Ghana, Report and Financial Statements of the Controller and Accountant-General on the Public Accounts of Ghana, Year Ending 31 December 1995 (Accra, 1996).
93. Ghanaian Democrat (Accra), 15-21 November 1993.
94. Ghanaian Chronicle, 2-7 January 1995.
95. Ibid. 26 February-3 March 1996.
96. Overseas Development Institute, Adjustment in Africa: lessons from Ghana (London, July 1996), Briefing Paper.
97. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, Ghana: country profile, 1996-97 (London, 1996), donors have withheld disbursements of $100-330 million each year since 1992.
98. Centre for Policy Analysis, Macroeconomic Review and Outlook (Accra, 1996), p. 28.
99. International Monetary Fund, op. cit. 1996, p. v.
100. Robert P. Armstrong, Ghana Country Assistance Review: a study in development effectiveness (Washington, DC, 1996), World Bank Operations Evaluation Study, p. 43.
101. Economist Intelligence Unit, op. cit. 1996.
102. Institute of Statistical, Social, and Economic Research, The State of the Ghanaian Economy in 1995 (Legon, July 1996), p. 17.
103. Sanjaya Lall and Frances Stewart, 'Trade and Industrial Policy in Africa', in Ben Ndulu and Nicolas van de Walle (eds.), Agenda for Africa's Economic Renewal (Washington, DC, 1996).
104. Armstrong, op. cit. 1996, pp. 49-50.
105. See, for example, Henry L. Bretton, The Rise and Fall of Kwame Nkrumah: a study of personal rule in Africa (London, 1966).
106. For some comparative evidence, see Richard Sandbrook, 'Transitions without Consolidation: democratization in six African cases', in Third World Quarterly, 17, 1, March 1996, pp. 69-87.
107. See A. Essuman-Johnson, 'The Democratic Ethos and Internal Party Democracy: the case of the parties in the Fourth Republic', in Kwame A. Ninsin and F. K. Drah (eds.), Political Parties and Democracy in Ghana's Fourth Republic (Accra, 1993), pp. 192-204.
108. For a detailed analysis of party politics from 1951 to the formation of the PNDC in 1981, see Jon Kraus, 'Political Party Failures and Political Responses in Ghana', in Kay Lawson and Peter H. Merkl (eds.), When Parties Fail (Princeton, 1986), pp. 464-99.
109. West Africa, 25 September-8 October 1995.
110. Ibid. 8-14 February, p. 195.
111. See A. N. E. Amissah, The Contribution of the Courts to Government: a West African view (Oxford, 1981).
112. Ernest Aryeetey, 'Private Investment under Uncertainty in Ghana', in World Development, 22, 1994, pp. 1211-21.
113. Between 1991 and early 1996, as many as 72 court cases were brought against journalists and media houses in Accra courts, often by the former NDC Chief Whip and the current Deputy Interior Minister, Albert Bosumtwi-Sam. See Audrey Gadzekpo, 'Lawsuits Against the Press: justice or punishment?', in Media Monitor (Accra), 4, July-September 1996, p. 5.
114. The charges brought against Ibrahim Adam were for activities undertaken while Minister of Agriculture since he was shifted 'horizontally' during the probe.
115. P. Gregory, 'Dealing with Redundancies in Government Employment in Ghana', in D. L. Lindauer and Barbara Nunberg (eds.), Rehabilitating Government: pay and employment reform in Africa (Aldershot, 1996), p. 196.
116. Leechor, loc. cit. 1994, p. 167.
117. Mamadou Dia, A Governance Approach to Civil Service Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, DC, 1993), World Bank Technical Paper No. 225, and van de Walle, loc. cit. 1995, p. 161.
118. Mamadou Dia, A Governance Approach to Civil Service Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, DC, 1993), World Bank Technical Paper No. 225, and van de Walle, loc. cit. 1995, p. 161.
119. See Joseph R. A. Ayee, 'Civil Service Reform in Ghana: a case study in contemporary problems of reform in Africa', Development Policy Management Forum, Addis Ababa, 4-5 December 1995, and Armstrong, op. cit. 1996.
120. See Joseph R. A. Ayee, 'Civil Service Reform in Ghana: a case study in contemporary problems of reform in Africa', Development Policy Management Forum, Addis Ababa, 4-5 December 1995, and Armstrong, op. cit. 1996.
121. Information provided by the Comptroller and Accountant-General's office in Accra in February 1997 from its computerised payroll, which had been 'cleaned' after the 1996 elections.
122. Centre for Policy Analysis, 1997, p. 29.
123. As of February 1997, the Bank of Ghana had lacked a director of research for eight years and the Ministry of Finance for four years.
124. Steered by a committee of 14 prominent individuals from the public and private sectors, this Group aims to identify and address constraints on capacity building in Ghana's enterprises and institutions.
125. World Bank, Ghana: growth, private sector and poverty reduction (Washington, DC, 15 May 1995), Country Economic Memorandum, and Armstrong, op, cit. 1996.
126. World Bank, Ghana: growth, private sector and poverty reduction (Washington, DC, 15 May 1995), Country Economic Memorandum, and Armstrong, op, cit. 1996.
127. However, the dismissal of the CEPS Commissioner in July 1997, following three years in which he had vigorously investigated instances of tax evasion and smuggling, threw the future of this key agency into doubt.
128. Gyimah-Boadi, loc. cit. 1997.
129. The sale generated massive amounts of media attention - see African Observer (Accra), 20 February-5 March 1997; Daily Graphic (Accra), 7 February 1997; Business and Financial Times (Accra), 17-23 February 1997; Ghanaian Chronicle, 3-4 February 1997 ; and Business Chronicle (Accra), 11-24 February 1997.
130. The sale generated massive amounts of media attention - see African Observer (Accra), 20 February-5 March 1997; Daily Graphic (Accra), 7 February 1997; Business and Financial Times (Accra), 17-23 February 1997; Ghanaian Chronicle, 3-4 February 1997 ; and Business Chronicle (Accra), 11-24 February 1997.
131. The sale generated massive amounts of media attention - see African Observer (Accra), 20 February-5 March 1997; Daily Graphic (Accra), 7 February 1997; Business and Financial Times (Accra), 17-23 February 1997; Ghanaian Chronicle, 3-4 February 1997 ; and Business Chronicle (Accra), 11-24 February 1997.
132. The sale generated massive amounts of media attention - see African Observer (Accra), 20 February-5 March 1997; Daily Graphic (Accra), 7 February 1997; Business and Financial Times (Accra), 17-23 February 1997; Ghanaian Chronicle, 3-4 February 1997 ; and Business Chronicle (Accra), 11-24 February 1997.
133. The sale generated massive amounts of media attention - see African Observer (Accra), 20 February-5 March 1997; Daily Graphic (Accra), 7 February 1997; Business and Financial Times (Accra), 17-23 February 1997; Ghanaian Chronicle, 3-4 February 1997 ; and Business Chronicle (Accra), 11-24 February 1997.
134. This paragraph draws heavily on Brownbridge and Fitz Gockel, op. cit. 1996.
135. Ghanaian Chronicle, 14-20 March 1997.
136. Nugent, op. cit. especially pp. 192-3.
137. See E. Gyimah-Boadi, 'Associational Life, Civil Society, and Democratization in Ghana', in John W. Harbeson, Donald Rothchild, and Naomi Chazan (eds.), Civil Society and the State in Africa (Boulder, 1994), pp. 125-48, and Gyimah-Boadi, loc. cit. 1997, pp. 88-91.
138. See E. Gyimah-Boadi, 'Associational Life, Civil Society, and Democratization in Ghana', in John W. Harbeson, Donald Rothchild, and Naomi Chazan (eds.), Civil Society and the State in Africa (Boulder, 1994), pp. 125-48, and Gyimah-Boadi, loc. cit. 1997, pp. 88-91.
139. Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: civic traditions in modern Italy (Princeton, 1993).
140. Robert M. Price, 'Politics and Culture in Contemporary Ghana: the big-man, small-boy syndrome', in Journal of African Studies 'Washington, DC), 1, 1, 1974, pp. 173-204. Nugent's insightful analysis, op. cit. 1995, of the re-embedding of the Ghanaian state in clientelist networks also draws heavily upon the 'big-man, small-boy syndrome'.
141. Robert M. Price, 'Politics and Culture in Contemporary Ghana: the big-man, small-boy syndrome', in Journal of African Studies 'Washington, DC), 1, 1, 1974, pp. 173-204. Nugent's insightful analysis, op. cit. 1995, of the re-embedding of the Ghanaian state in clientelist networks also draws heavily upon the 'big-man, small-boy syndrome'.
142. Owusu, op. cit. 1970, p. 251. The few available studies of popular attitudes uniformly portray Ghanaians as expecting their politicians to be self-aggrandizing, and therefore hoping to receive some tangible benefits in exchange for their continued support. Political cynicism breeds, at the same time, a populist yearning which Rawlings initially satisfied. See Fred M. Hayward, 'Rural Attitudes and Expectations about National Government: experiences in selected Ghanaian communities', in Rural Africana (East Lansing, MI), 18, Fall 1972, pp. 40-58; Richard Sandbrook and Jack Arn, The Labouring Poor and Urban Class Formation: the case of greater Accra (Montreal, 1977), McGill University Occasional Monograph No. 12; David Brown, 'The Political Response to Immiseration: a case study of rural Ghana', in Genève-Afrique (Geneva), 18, 1, 1980, pp. 55-74; and Kwame A. Ninsin, 'The Electoral System, Elections and Democracy in Ghana', in Ninsin and Drah (eds.), op. cit. pp. 175-91.
143. Owusu, op. cit. 1970, p. 251. The few available studies of popular attitudes uniformly portray Ghanaians as expecting their politicians to be self-aggrandizing, and therefore hoping to receive some tangible benefits in exchange for their continued support. Political cynicism breeds, at the same time, a populist yearning which Rawlings initially satisfied. See Fred M. Hayward, 'Rural Attitudes and Expectations about National Government: experiences in selected Ghanaian communities', in Rural Africana (East Lansing, MI), 18, Fall 1972, pp. 40-58; Richard Sandbrook and Jack Arn, The Labouring Poor and Urban Class Formation: the case of greater Accra (Montreal, 1977), McGill University Occasional Monograph No. 12; David Brown, 'The Political Response to Immiseration: a case study of rural Ghana', in Genève-Afrique (Geneva), 18, 1, 1980, pp. 55-74; and Kwame A. Ninsin, 'The Electoral System, Elections and Democracy in Ghana', in Ninsin and Drah (eds.), op. cit. pp. 175-91.
144. Owusu, op. cit. 1970, p. 251. The few available studies of popular attitudes uniformly portray Ghanaians as expecting their politicians to be self-aggrandizing, and therefore hoping to receive some tangible benefits in exchange for their continued support. Political cynicism breeds, at the same time, a populist yearning which Rawlings initially satisfied. See Fred M. Hayward, 'Rural Attitudes and Expectations about National Government: experiences in selected Ghanaian communities', in Rural Africana (East Lansing, MI), 18, Fall 1972, pp. 40-58; Richard Sandbrook and Jack Arn, The Labouring Poor and Urban Class Formation: the case of greater Accra (Montreal, 1977), McGill University Occasional Monograph No. 12; David Brown, 'The Political Response to Immiseration: a case study of rural Ghana', in Genève-Afrique (Geneva), 18, 1, 1980, pp. 55-74; and Kwame A. Ninsin, 'The Electoral System, Elections and Democracy in Ghana', in Ninsin and Drah (eds.), op. cit. pp. 175-91.
145. Owusu, op. cit. 1970, p. 251. The few available studies of popular attitudes uniformly portray Ghanaians as expecting their politicians to be self-aggrandizing, and therefore hoping to receive some tangible benefits in exchange for their continued support. Political cynicism breeds, at the same time, a populist yearning which Rawlings initially satisfied. See Fred M. Hayward, 'Rural Attitudes and Expectations about National Government: experiences in selected Ghanaian communities', in Rural Africana (East Lansing, MI), 18, Fall 1972, pp. 40-58; Richard Sandbrook and Jack Arn, The Labouring Poor and Urban Class Formation: the case of greater Accra (Montreal, 1977), McGill University Occasional Monograph No. 12; David Brown, 'The Political Response to Immiseration: a case study of rural Ghana', in Genève-Afrique (Geneva), 18, 1, 1980, pp. 55-74; and Kwame A. Ninsin, 'The Electoral System, Elections and Democracy in Ghana', in Ninsin and Drah (eds.), op. cit. pp. 175-91.
146. Owusu, op. cit. 1970, p. 251. The few available studies of popular attitudes uniformly portray Ghanaians as expecting their politicians to be self-aggrandizing, and therefore hoping to receive some tangible benefits in exchange for their continued support. Political cynicism breeds, at the same time, a populist yearning which Rawlings initially satisfied. See Fred M. Hayward, 'Rural Attitudes and Expectations about National Government: experiences in selected Ghanaian communities', in Rural Africana (East Lansing, MI), 18, Fall 1972, pp. 40-58; Richard Sandbrook and Jack Arn, The Labouring Poor and Urban Class Formation: the case of greater Accra (Montreal, 1977), McGill University Occasional Monograph No. 12; David Brown, 'The Political Response to Immiseration: a case study of rural Ghana', in Genève-Afrique (Geneva), 18, 1, 1980, pp. 55-74; and Kwame A. Ninsin, 'The Electoral System, Elections and Democracy in Ghana', in Ninsin and Drah (eds.), op. cit. pp. 175-91.
147. Naomi Chazan, An Anatomy of Ghanaian Politics: managing political recession, 1969-1982 (Boulder, CO, 1983), pp. 98-102, and Nugent, op. cit. 1995.
148. Naomi Chazan, An Anatomy of Ghanaian Politics: managing political recession, 1969-1982 (Boulder, CO, 1983), pp. 98-102, and Nugent, op. cit. 1995.
149. David Kimble, A Political History of Ghana: the rise of Gold Coast nationalism, 1850-1928 (Oxford, 1963), p. 557.
150. J. D. Fage, Ghana: a historical interpretation (Madison, 1959), pp. 69-70.
151. Dennis Austin, Politics in Ghana, 1946-1960 (London, 1964), pp. 18-21.
152. Kimble, op. cit. p. 127.
153. Ibid. p. 91.
154. Ibid. p. 405.
155. This was a common theme in interviews with opposition leaders in 1993, 1994, 1996, and 1997.