Transitions without consolidation: Democratization in six African cases

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 69-88

  Sandbrook, Richard ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRATIC TRANSITION; DEMOCRATISATION; DEVELOPING REGION; GEOPOLITICAL STUDY; POLITICAL CHANGE;

AFRICA; GHANA;

EID: 0030460260     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436599650035789     Document Type: Article

References (61)

1. See, eg S Decalo, 'The process, prospects and constraints of democratization in Africa', African Affairs, 91, 1992, pp 7-35; and R Lemarchand, 'Africa's troubled transitions', Journal of Democracy, 3, 1992, pp 98-109.
2. See, eg S Decalo, 'The process, prospects and constraints of democratization in Africa', African Affairs, 91, 1992, pp 7-35; and R Lemarchand, 'Africa's troubled transitions', Journal of Democracy, 3, 1992, pp 98-109.
3. V G Simiyu reviews the arguments in 'The democratic myth in African traditional societies', in W O Oyugi & A Gitonga (eds), Democratic Theory and Practice in Africa, Nairobi: Heinemann, 1987.
4. M Bratton & N van de Walle, 'Neopatrimonial regimes and political transitions in Africa', World Politics, 46, 1994, pp 453-489.
5. This argument is similar to G O'Donnell's theory of delegative democracy which he develops in the Latin American context. See O'Donnell, 'Delegative democracy', Journal of Democracy, 5, 1994, pp 55-69.
6. M Bratton, 'Economic crisis and political realignment in Zambia', in J Widner (ed), Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.
7. M Baregu, 'The economic origins of political liberalization and future prospects', in MSD Bagachwa & AVY Mbelle (eds), Economic Policy under a Multiparty System in Tanzania, Dar es Salaam: University of Dar es Salaam Press, 1993.
8. M Kanté et al Governance in Democratic Mali: An Assessment of Transition and Consolidation and Guidelines for Near-Term Action. Washington, DC: Associates in Rural Development, July 1994, p 222.
9. The country reports of the International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) were a crucial source of information on these external contributions. See L Cooper, F Hayward & A Lee, Ghana: A Pre-Election Assessment Report, Washington, DC: IFES, 1 June 1992; J Fischer & R Kall, Voter Identification and Registration in Ghana: A Technical Assessment, Washington, DC: IFES, 26 January 1994; L Edgeworth et al, Mali: A Pre-Election Technical Assessment Report of Capabilities and Needs, Washington, DC: IFES, 8 July 1991; and W S Kuhn, L Massicotte & B Owen, Madagascar: A Pre-Election Assessment Report, Washington, DC: IFES, 30 March 1992.
10. The country reports of the International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) were a crucial source of information on these external contributions. See L Cooper, F Hayward & A Lee, Ghana: A Pre-Election Assessment Report, Washington, DC: IFES, 1 June 1992; J Fischer & R Kall, Voter Identification and Registration in Ghana: A Technical Assessment, Washington, DC: IFES, 26 January 1994; L Edgeworth et al, Mali: A Pre-Election Technical Assessment Report of Capabilities and Needs, Washington, DC: IFES, 8 July 1991; and W S Kuhn, L Massicotte & B Owen, Madagascar: A Pre-Election Assessment Report, Washington, DC: IFES, 30 March 1992.
11. The country reports of the International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) were a crucial source of information on these external contributions. See L Cooper, F Hayward & A Lee, Ghana: A Pre-Election Assessment Report, Washington, DC: IFES, 1 June 1992; J Fischer & R Kall, Voter Identification and Registration in Ghana: A Technical Assessment, Washington, DC: IFES, 26 January 1994; L Edgeworth et al, Mali: A Pre-Election Technical Assessment Report of Capabilities and Needs, Washington, DC: IFES, 8 July 1991; and W S Kuhn, L Massicotte & B Owen, Madagascar: A Pre-Election Assessment Report, Washington, DC: IFES, 30 March 1992.
12. The country reports of the International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) were a crucial source of information on these external contributions. See L Cooper, F Hayward & A Lee, Ghana: A Pre-Election Assessment Report, Washington, DC: IFES, 1 June 1992; J Fischer & R Kall, Voter Identification and Registration in Ghana: A Technical Assessment, Washington, DC: IFES, 26 January 1994; L Edgeworth et al, Mali: A Pre-Election Technical Assessment Report of Capabilities and Needs, Washington, DC: IFES, 8 July 1991; and W S Kuhn, L Massicotte & B Owen, Madagascar: A Pre-Election Assessment Report, Washington, DC: IFES, 30 March 1992.
13. G Geisler, 'Fair? What has fairness got to do with it? Vagaries of election observations and democratic standards', Journal of Modern African Studies, 31, 1993, pp 613-637.
14. Ibid.
15. See J A Wiseman, 'Early post-redemocratization elections in Africa', Electoral Studies, 11, 1992, pp 279-291.
16. New Patriotic Party, The Stolen Verdict: Ghana, November 1992 Presidential Election, Accra: New Patriotic Party, 1993.
17. Cooper, Hayward & Lee, Ghana, p 45.
18. D Rothchild, 'Rawlings and the engineering of legitimacy in Ghana', paper presented to a conference on Democratisation and the 1992 Elections in Ghana, University of London, 5-6 August 1993; and J Haynes, 'Sustainable democracy in Ghana? Problems and prospects', Third World Quarterly, 14, 1993, pp 462-463.
19. D Rothchild, 'Rawlings and the engineering of legitimacy in Ghana', paper presented to a conference on Democratisation and the 1992 Elections in Ghana, University of London, 5-6 August 1993; and J Haynes, 'Sustainable democracy in Ghana? Problems and prospects', Third World Quarterly, 14, 1993, pp 462-463.
20. Although court orders obtained by the MMD in January and October 1991 progressively opened the government media to opposition voices. On the conduct of the election, see B C Chikulo, 'End of an era: an analysis of the 1991 Zambian presidential and parliamentary elections', Politikon, 20, 1993, pp 87-104; and K Panter-Brick, 'Prospects for democracy in Zambia', Government and Opposition, 1994, pp 235-241.
21. Although court orders obtained by the MMD in January and October 1991 progressively opened the government media to opposition voices. On the conduct of the election, see B C Chikulo, 'End of an era: an analysis of the 1991 Zambian presidential and parliamentary elections', Politikon, 20, 1993, pp 87-104; and K Panter-Brick, 'Prospects for democracy in Zambia', Government and Opposition, 1994, pp 235-241.
22. S Haggard & R Kaufman, 'Economic adjustment and the prospects for democracy', in Haggard & Kaufman (eds), The Politics of Economic Adjustment, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992, p 342.
23. Ibid, pp 343-347.
24. T West et al, The Transition to Democratic Governance in Tanzania: An Assessment and Guidelines for Near-Term Action, Washington, DC: Associates in Rural Development, 15 March 1994, p 104.
25. Ibid, p 107.
26. For a case study of the Kwahani (Zanzibar) by-election of April 1993 which emphasises the weakness of all parties, see M Mmuya & A Chaligha, The Anticlimax in Kwahani, Zanzibar: Participation and Multipartism in Tanzania, Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press, 1993.
27. J O Ihonvbere, 'From movement to government: the movement for multiparty democracy and the crisis of democratic consolidation in Zambia', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 29, 1995, pp 1-25.
28. Bratton, 'Economic crisis and political realignment', p 124.
29. Africa Research Bulletin, 1-31 July 1994.
30. R Vengroff, 'Governance and transitions to democracy: political parties and the party system in Mali', Journal of Modern African Studies, 31, 1993, pp 541-562.
31. J Ibrahim, 'Political exclusion, democratization and the dynamics of ethnicity in Niger Republic', paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association for Studies in International Development, Calgary, June 1994, pp 19-23.
32. P M Allen, Madagascar: Conflicts of Authority in the Great Island, Boulder, CO: Westview, 1995, ch 4.
33. R B Charlick et al, Improving Democratic Governance for Sustainable Development: An Assessment of Change and Continuity in Niger, Washington, DC: Associates in Rural Development, 9 October 1994, p 109; Kanté et al, Governance in Democratic Mali, pp 114-115; and L Fox & M Covell, An Assessment of Politics and Governance in Madagascar, Washington, DC: Associates in Rural Development, 24 April 1994, p 24.
34. R B Charlick et al, Improving Democratic Governance for Sustainable Development: An Assessment of Change and Continuity in Niger, Washington, DC: Associates in Rural Development, 9 October 1994, p 109; Kanté et al, Governance in Democratic Mali, pp 114-115; and L Fox & M Covell, An Assessment of Politics and Governance in Madagascar, Washington, DC: Associates in Rural Development, 24 April 1994, p 24.
35. R B Charlick et al, Improving Democratic Governance for Sustainable Development: An Assessment of Change and Continuity in Niger, Washington, DC: Associates in Rural Development, 9 October 1994, p 109; Kanté et al, Governance in Democratic Mali, pp 114-115; and L Fox & M Covell, An Assessment of Politics and Governance in Madagascar, Washington, DC: Associates in Rural Development, 24 April 1994, p 24.
36. Daily Report: Sub-Saharan Africa, 15 April 1995.
37. A Essuman-Johnson, 'The democratic ethos and internal party democracy: the case of the parties in the Fourth Republic', in K Ninsin & K Drah (eds), Political Parties and Democracy in Ghana's Fourth Republic, Accra: Woeli, 1993.
38. For a detailed analysis of party politics from 1951 to the formation of the PNDC in 1981, see J Kraus, 'Political party failures and political responses in Ghana', in K Lawson & P H Merkl (eds), When Parties Fail, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986, pp 464-499.
39. West Africa, 25 September-8 October 1995.
40. World Bank, African Development Indicators 1994-95, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1995.
41. Ibid.
42. See Charlick et al, Improving Democratic Governance; and C Fay, 'La démocratie au Mali, ou le pouvoir en pâture', Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, 35, 1995, pp 30-32.
43. See Charlick et al, Improving Democratic Governance; and C Fay, 'La démocratie au Mali, ou le pouvoir en pâture', Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, 35, 1995, pp 30-32.
44. Ibrahim, 'Political exclusion'.
45. As one report on Mali notes (Edgeworth et al, Mali, p 51): 'among the government officials, party members, student groups, media representatives and associations with whom the team met, some had never experienced any kind of elections. Those who had participated in elections ... had experienced a single party system in which no real choices existed, and in which the outcome was generally known in advance.'
46. M Owusu, Uses and Abuses of Political Power: Continuity and Change in the Politics of Ghana, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1970; R B Charlick, Niger: Personal Rule and Survival in the Sahel, Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991, ch 2; and J L Amselle, 'La corruption et le clientelisme au Mali et en Europe de l'Est', Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, 32, 1992, pp 629-642.
47. M Owusu, Uses and Abuses of Political Power: Continuity and Change in the Politics of Ghana, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1970; R B Charlick, Niger: Personal Rule and Survival in the Sahel, Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991, ch 2; and J L Amselle, 'La corruption et le clientelisme au Mali et en Europe de l'Est', Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, 32, 1992, pp 629-642.
48. M Owusu, Uses and Abuses of Political Power: Continuity and Change in the Politics of Ghana, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1970; R B Charlick, Niger: Personal Rule and Survival in the Sahel, Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991, ch 2; and J L Amselle, 'La corruption et le clientelisme au Mali et en Europe de l'Est', Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, 32, 1992, pp 629-642.
49. This judgment is based on the author's research on political parties in Ghana in May-June 1994.
50. Yet we should not lose sight of the enormous variation in the circulation of daily newspapers. Ghana in 1985 had an average daily circulation of 37.3 copies per 1000 of its population. This was vastly higher than the circulation per 1000 in the other cases: Mali (0.5), Niger (0.8), Madagascar (5.6), Tanzania (9.7) and Zambia (17.6). Obviously, Ghana's relatively high level of literacy, urbanisation and economic development made a difference. Source: World Bank, Social Indicators of Development 1988, Baltimore, HD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988.
51. PAV Ansah, 'Blueprint for freedom', Index on Censorship, 20, 1991, pp 3-8.
52. D L Wilcox, 'Black African states', in J L Curry & J R Dassin, (eds), Press Control Around the World, New York: Praeger, 1982, p 209.
53. West Africa, 2-8 October 1989 p 1. See also B Ankomah, 'Ghana: where truth is on holiday', Index on Censorship, 15, 1986, pp 53-41.
54. West Africa, 2-8 October 1989 p 1. See also B Ankomah, 'Ghana: where truth is on holiday', Index on Censorship, 15, 1986, pp 53-41.
55. V Randall, 'The media and democratisation in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, 14, 1993, pp 634-635, 638.
56. Charlick et al, Improving Democratic Governance, p 111.
57. Kanté et al, Governance in Democratic Mali, p 114.
58. Allen, Madagascar, pp 156-158.
59. L M Bourgault, 'The flowering of democracy and the press in the 1990s: case of Zambia', paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, Toronto, 3-6 November 1994.
60. Fox & Cavell, An Assessment of Politics, pp 54-55.
61. D J Sharfstein, 'Radio Free Ghana', Africa Report, 40, 1995, pp 45-47.