Signals for activation of the GM-CSF promoter and enhancer in T cells

Critical Reviews in Immunology

Volumn 17, Issue 3-4, 1997, Pages 301-323

  Shannon, M F ^a   Coles, L S ^a   Vadas, M A ^a   Cockerill, P N ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL AND VETERINARY SCIENCE   (Australia)

Author keywords

CSD proteins; NF B rel; NFAT; Repression; T cell activation; Transcription

Indexed keywords

GRANULOCYTE MACROPHAGE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR;

CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL SURVIVAL; DRUG RECEPTOR BINDING; ENHANCER REGION; GENE MUTATION; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; HEMATOPOIETIC CELL; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; MACROPHAGE ACTIVATION; MEDIATOR RELEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROMOTER REGION; PROTEIN FAMILY; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; T LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION;

EID: 0031006875     PISSN: 10408401     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1615/critrevimmunol.v17.i3-4.30     Document Type: Review

References (168)

1. Metcalf, D., Control of granulocytes and macrophages: molecular, cellular, and clinical aspects, Science, 254, 529, 1991.
2. Nicola, N. A., Hemopoietic cell growth factors and their receptors, Annu. Rev. Biochem., 58, 45, 1989.
3. Gasson, J. C., Molecular physiology of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, Blood, 77, 1131, 1991.
4. Vadas, M. A., Nicola, N. A., and Metcalf, D., Activation of antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity of the human neutrophils and eosinophils by separate colony-stimulating factors, J. Immunol., 130, 795, 1983.
5. Lopez, A. F., Nicola, N. A., Burgess, A. W., Metcalf, D., Battye, F. L., Sewell, W. A., and Vadas, M. A., Activation of granulocyte cytotoxic function by purified mouse colony-stimulating factors, J. Immunol., 131, 2983, 1983.
6. Stanley, E., Lieschke, G. J., Drail, D., Metcalf, D., Hodgson, G., Gall, J. A. M., Maher, D. W., Cebon, J., Sinickas, V., and Dunn, A. R., Granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor-deficient mice show no major perturbation of hematopoiesis but develop a characteristic pulmonary pathology, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 91, 5592, 1994.
7. Young, D. C., Wagner, K., and Griffin, J. D., Constitutive expression of the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stinulating factor gene in acute myeloblastic leukemia, J. Clin. Invest., 79, 100, 1987.
8. Russell, N. H., Autocrine growth factors and leukaemic haemopoiesis, Blood Rev., 6, 149, 1992.
9. Freedman, M. H., Cohen, A., Grunberger, T., Bunin, N., Luddy, R. E., Saunders, E. F., Shahidi, N., Lau, A., and Estrov, Z., Central role of tumour necrosis factor, GM-CSF, and interleukin 1 in the pathogenesis of juvenile chronic myelogenous leukaemia, Br. J. Haematol., 80, 40, 1992.
10. Kato, M., Liu, M. C., Stealey, B. A., Friedman, B., Lichtenstein, L. M., Permutt, S., and Schleimer, R. P., Production of GM-CSF in human airways during allergen-induced late-phase reactions in atopic subjects, Lymphokine Cytokine Res., 11, 287, 1992.
11. Williamson, D. J., Begley, C. G., Vadas, M. A., and Metcalf, D., The detection and initial characterization of colony-stimulating factors in synovial fluid, Clin. Exp. Immunol., 72, 67, 1988.
12. Fabrey, Z., Raine, C. S., and Hart, M. N., Nervous tissue as an immune compartment: the dialect of the immune response in the CNS, Immunol. Today, 15, 218, 1994.
13. Osama, M., Usuku, K., Ijichi, N., Amitani, H., Igata, A., Matsumoto, M., and Tara, H., HTLV-1 associated myelopathy, a new clinical entity, Lancet, 1, 1031, 1986.
14. Agostini, C., Trentin, L., Zambello, R., Bulian, P., Caenazzo, C., Cipriani, A., Cadrobbi, P., Garbisa, S., and Semenzato, G., Release of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor by alveolar macrophages, J. Immunol., 149, 3379, 1992.
15. Chan, J. Y., Slamon, D. J., Nimer, S. D., Golde, D. W., and Gasson, J. C., Regulation of expression of human granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 83, 8669, 1986.
16. Nimer, S. D., Morita, E. A., Martis, M. J., Wachsman, W., and Gasson, J. C., Characterization of the human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor promoter region by genetic analysis: correlation with DNase I footprinting, Mol. Cell. Biol., 8, 1979, 1988.
17. Nimer, S., Fraser, J., Richards, J., Lynch, M., and Gasson, J., The repeated sequence CATT(A/T) is required for granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor promoter activity, Mol. Cell. Biol., 10, 6084, 1990.
18. x protein and bovine papilloma virus encoded E2 protein, Nucl. Acids Res., 16, 6547, 1988.
19. x protein activate the mouse granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene through a common DNA element, Mol. Cell. Biol., 8, 5581, 1988.
20. Shannon, M. F., Gamble, J. R., and Vadas, M. A., Nuclear proteins interacting with the promoter region of the human granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85, 674, 1988.
21. Shannon, M. F., Pell, L. M., Lenardo, M. J., Kuczek, E. S., Occhiodoro, F. S., Dunn, S. M., and Vadas, M. A., A novel tumor necrosis factor-responsive transcription factor which recognizes a regulatory element in hemopoietic growth factor genes, Mol. Cell. Biol., 10, 2950, 1990.
22. Shannon, M. F., Occhiodoro, F. S., Ryan, G. R., and Vadas, M. A., Two distinct nuclear proteins bind to adjacent sites on the GM-CSF promoter, Lymphokine Receptor Interactions, 179, 73, 1989.
23. Fraser, J. D., Straus, D., and Weiss, A., Signal transduction events leading to T-cell lymphokine gene expression, Immunol. Today, 14, 357, 1993.
24. Weiss, A. and Littman, D. R., Signal transduction by lymphocyte antigen receptors, Cell, 76, 263, 1994.
25. Chan, A. C., Desai, D. M., and Weiss, A., The role of protein tyrosine kinases and protein tyrosine phosphatases in T-cell antigent receptor signal transduction, Annu. Rev. Immunol., 12, 555, 1994.
26. Lui, J., FK506 and cyclosporin, molecular probes for studying intracellular signal transduction, Immunol. Today, 14, 290, 1993.
27. Schreiber, S. L. and Crabtree, G. R., The mechanism of action of cyclosporin A and FK506, Immunol. Today, 13, 136, 1992.
28. Rao, A., NF-ATp: a transcription factor required for the co-ordinate induction of several cytokine genes, Immunol. Today, 15, 274, 1994.
29. Siebenlist, U., Franzoso, G., and Brown, K., Structure, regulation and function of NF-κB, Annu. Rev. Cell Biol., 10, 405, 1994.
30. Serfling, E., Avots, A., and Neumann, M., The architecture of theinterleukin-2 promoter: a reflection of T lymphocyte activation, Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 1263, 181, 1995.
31. Cockerill, P. N., Shannon, M. F., Bert, A. G., Ryan, G. R., and Vadas, M. A., The granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor/interleukin 3 locus is regulated by an inducible cyclosporin A-sensitive enhancer, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 90, 2466, 1993.
32. Jenkins, F., Cockerill, P. N., Bohmann, D., and Shannon, M. F., Multiple signals are required for function of the human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene promoter in T cells, J. Immunol., 155, 1240, 1995.
33. Naora, H., van Leeuwen, B. H., Bourke, P. F., and Young, I. G., Functional role and signal-induced modulation of proteins recognizing the conserved TCATTT-containing promoter elements in the murine IL-5 and GM-CSF genes in T lymphocytes, J. Immunol., 153, 3466, 1994.
34. Koyano-Nakagawa, N., Nishida, J., Arai, N., Arai, K., and Yokota, T., reconstitution of the functional granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor promoter: evidence for distinct activation mechanisms that mediate the response to phorbol ester/calcium and human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 tax signals, Int. Immunol., 5, 345, 1992.
35. Miyatake, S., Shlomia, J., Arai, K., and Arai, N., Characterization of the mouse granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) gene promoter: nuclear factors that interact with an element shared by three lymphokine genes - those for GM-CSF, interleukin-4 (IL-4), and IL-5, Mol. Cell. Biol., 11, 5894, 1991.
36. Fraser, J. K., Tran, S., Nimer, S. D., and Gasson, J. C., Characterization of nuclear factors that bind to a critical positive element of the human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor promoter, Blood, 84, 2523, 1994.
37. Masuda, E. S., Tokumitsu, H., Tsuboi, A., Shlomai, J., Hung, P., Arai, K., and Arai, N., The granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor promoter cis-acting element CLEO mediates induction signals in T cells and is recognized by factors related to API and NFAT, Mol. Cell. Biol., 13, 7399, 1993.
38. Wang, C., Bassuk, A. G., Boise, L. H., Thompson, C. B., Bravo, R., and Leiden, J. M., Activation of the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor promoter in T cells requires cooperative binding of Elf-1 and AP-1 transcription factors, Mol. Cell. Biol., 14, 1153, 1994.
39. Thomas, R. S., Tymms, M. J., Seth, A., Shannon, M. F., and Kola, I., ETS1 transactivates the human GM-CSF promoter in Jurkat T cells stimulated with PMA and ionomycin, Oncogene, 11, 2135, 1995.
40. Wasylyk, B., Hahn, S. L., and Giovane, A., The Ets family of transcription factors, Eur. J. Biochem., 211, 7, 1993.
41. a. Nimer, S. D., Zhang, W., Kwan, K., Whang, Y., and Zhang, J., Adjacent, cooperative elements form a strong, constitutive enhancer in the human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene, Blood, 87, 3694, 1996.
42. Davis, R. J., MAPKs: new JNK expands the group, TIBS, 19, 470, 1994.
43. Kallunki, T., Su, B., Tsigelny, I., Sluss, H. K., Derijard, B., Moore, G., Davis, R., and Karin, M., Jnk2 contains a specificity-determining region responsible for efficient c-Jun binding and phosphorylation, Genes Dev., 8, 2996, 1994.
44. Su, B., Jacinto, E., Hibi, M., Kallunki, T., Karin, M., and Ben-Neriah, Y., JNK is involved in signal integration during costimulation of T lymphocytes, Cell, 77, 727, 1994.
45. van Dam, H., Wilhem, D., Herr, I., Steffen, A., Herrlich, P., and Angel, P., ATF-2 is preferentially activated by stress-activated protein kinases to mediate c-jun induction in response to genotoxic agents, EMBO J., 14, 1798, 1995.
46. Rincon, M. and Flavell, R. A., Regulation of AP-1 and NFAT transcription factors during thymic selection of T cells, Mol. Cell. Biol., 16, 1074, 1996.
47. Schreck, R. and Baeuerle, P. A., NF-κB as inducible transcriptional activator of the GM-CSF gene, Mol. Cell. Biol., 10, 1281, 1990.
48. Tsuboi, A., Sugimoto, K., Yodoi, J., Miyatake, S., Arai, K., and Arai, N., A nuclear factor NF-GM2 that interacts with a regulatory region of the GM-CSF gene essential for its induction in response to T-cell activation: purification from human T-cell leukemia line Jurkat cells and similarity to NF-κB, Int. Immunol., 3, 807, 1991.
49. Sugimoto, K., Tsuboi, A., Miyatake, S., Arai, K., and Arai, N., Inducible and non-inducible factors cooperatively activate the GM-CSF promoter by interacting with two adjacent DNA motifs, Int. Immunol., 2, 787, 1990.
50. Tsuboi, A., Muramatsu, M., Tsutsumi, A., Arai, K., and Arai, N., Calcineurin activates transcription from the GM-CSF promoter in synergy with either protein kinase C or NF-κB/AP-1 in T cells, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm., 199, 1064, 1994.
51. Dunn, S. M., Coles, L. S., Lang, R. K., Gerondakis, S., Vadas, M. A., and Shannon, M. F., Requirement for NF-κB p65 and NF-IL6 binding elements in the TNF response region of the G-CSF promoter, Blood, 83, 2469, 1993.
52. Shannon, M. F., Himes, S. R., and Coles, L. S., GM-CSF and IL-2 share common control mechanisms in response to costimulatory signals in T cells, J. Leuk. Biol., 57, 767, 1995.
53. McCaffrey, P. G., Kim, P. K., Valge-Archer, V. E., Sen, R., and Rao, A., Cyclosporin A sensitivity of the NF-κB site of the IL2Rα promoter in untransformed murine T cells, Nucleic Acids Res., 22, 2134, 1994.
54. a. Kotchetkova, M. and Shannon, M. F., DNA triplex formation selectively inhibits granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene expression in human T cells, J. Biol. Chem., in press, 1996.
55. Cockerill, P. N., Bert, A. G., Jenkins, F., Ryan, G. R., Shannon, M. F., and Vadas, M. A., Human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor enhancer function is associated with cooperative interactions between AP-1 and NFATp/c, Mol. Cell. Biol., 15, 2071, 1995.
56. Goldfeld, A. E., McCaffrey, P. G., Strominger, J. L., and Rao, A., Identification of a novel cyclosporin-sensitive element in the human tumor necrosis factor α gene promoter, J. Exp. Med., 178, 1365, 1993.
57. Tsai, E. Y., Jain, J., Pesavento, P. A., Rao, A., and Goldfeld, A. E., Tumor necrosis factor alpha gene regulation in activated T cells involves ATF-2/Jun and NFATp, Mol. Cell. Biol., 16, 459, 1996.
58. Osborne, C. S., Vadas, M. A., and Cockerill, P. N., Transcriptional regulation of mouse granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor/IL-3 locus, J. Immunol., 155, 226, 1995.
59. June, C. H., Bluestone, J. A., Nadler, L. M., and Thompson, C. B., The B7 and CD28 receptor families, Immunol. Today, 15, 321, 1994.
60. Lai, J. and Tan, T., CD28 signaling causes a sustained down-regulation of IkBa which can be prevented by the immunosuppressant rapamycin, J. Biol. Chem., 269, 30077, 1994.
61. June, C. H., Ledbetter, J. A., Linsley, P. S., and Thompson, C. B., Role of the CD28 receptor in T-cell activation, Immunol. Today, 11, 211, 1990.
62. Fraser, J. D., Irving, B. A., Crabtree, G. R., and Weiss, A., Regulation of interleukin-2 gene enhancer activity by the T cell accessory molecule CD28, Science, 251, 313, 1991.
63. Fraser, J. D. and Weiss, A., Regulation of T-cell lymphokine gene transcription by the accessory molecule CD28, Mol. Cell. Biol., 12, 4357, 1992.
64. Li, M. and Siekevitz, M., A cis element required for induction of the interleukin 2 enhancer by human T-cell leukemia virus type I binds a novel tax-inducible nuclear protein, Mol. Cell Biol., 13, 6490, 1993.
65. Verweii, C. L., Geerts, M., and Aarden, L. A., Activation of interleukin-2 gene transcription via the T-cell surface molecule CD28 is mediated through an NF-κB-like response element, J. Biol. Chem., 266, 14179, 1991.
66. Ghosh, P., Tan, T., Rice, N. R., Sica, A., and Young, H. A., The interleukin 2 CD28-responsive complex contains at least three members of the NF-κB family: c-Rel, p50, and p65, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 90, 1696, 1993.
67. Bryan, R. G., Li, Y., Lai, J., Van, M., Rice, N. R., Rich, R. R., and Tan, T., Effect of CD28 signal transduction on c-Rel in human peripheral blood T cells, Mol. Cell. Biol., 14, 7933, 1994.
68. Lai, J., Horvath, G., Subleski, J., Bruder, J., Ghosh, P., and Tan, T., RelA is a potent transcriptional activator of the CD28 response element within the interleukin 2 promoter, Mol. Cell. Biol., 15, 4260, 1995.
69. a. Kontgen, F., Grumont, R. J., Strasser, A., Metcalf, D., Li, R., Tarlington, D., and Gerondakis, S., Mice lacking the c-rel proto-oncogene exhibit defects in lymphocyte proliferation, humoral immunity, and interleukin-2 expression, Genes Dev., 9, 1965, 1995.
70. b. Gerondakis, S., Strasser, A., Metcalf, D., Grigoriadis, G., Scheerlinck, J-P. Y., and Grumont, R. J., Reldeficient T cells exhibit defects in production of interleukin 3 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 93, 3405, 1996.
71. Thanos, D. and Maniatis, T., The high mobility group protein HMG I(Y) is required for NF-κB-dependent virus induction of the human IFN-β gene, Cell, 71, 777, 1992.
72. Lewis, H., Kaszubska, W., DeLarmarter, J. F., and Whelan, J., Cooperativity between two NF-κB complexes, mediated by high-mobility-group protein I(Y), is essential for cytokine-induced expression of the E-selectin promoter, Mol. Cell. Biol., 14, 5701, 1994.
73. McCaffrey, P. G., Jain, J., Jamieson, C., Sen, R., and Rao, A., A T-cell nuclear factor resembling NF-AT binds to an NF-κB site and to the conserved lymphokine promoter sequence "cytokine-1", J. Biol. Chem., 267, 1864, 1992.
74. Rooney, J. W., Sun, Y., Glimcher, L. H., and Hoey, T., Novel NFAT sites that mediate activation of the interleukin-2 promoter in response to T-cell receptor stimulation, Mol. Cell. Biol., 15, 6299, 1995.
75. Jain, J., Burgeon, E., Badalian, T. M., Hogan, P. G., and Rao, A., A similar DNA-binding motif in NFAT family proteins and the Rel homology region, J. Biol. Chem., 270, 4138, 1995.
76. Greene, W., Bohnlein, E., and Ballard, D. W., HIV-1, HTLV-1 and normal T-cell growth: transcriptional strategies and surprises, Immunol. Today, 10, 272, 1989.
77. Miyatake, S., Seiki, M., Malefijit, R. D., Heiki, T., Fujisawa, J., Takabe, Y., Nishida, J., Shlomai, J., Yokota, T., Yoshida, M., Arai, K., and Arai, N., Activation of T-cell derived lymphokine genes in T-cells and fibroblasts: effects of human T leukemia virus type I p40x protein and bovine papilloma virus encoded E2 protein, Nucleic Acids Res., 16, 6547, 1988.
78. Wano, Y., Feinberg, M., Hosking, J. B., Bogerd, H., and Greene, W. C., Stable expression of the tax gene of type I human T-cell leukemia virus in human T cells activates specific cellular genes involved in growth, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85, 9733, 1988.
79. Himes, S. R., Coles, L. S., Katsikeros, R., Lang, R. K., and Shannon, M. F., HTLV-1 tax activation of the GM-CSF and G-CSF promoters requires the interaction of NF-κB with other transcription factor families, Oncogene, 8, 3189, 1993.
80. a. Nimer, S., Tax responsiveness of the GM-CSF promoter is mediated by mitogen-inducible sequences other than κB, New Biologist, 3, 997, 1991.
81. Himes, S. R., Katsikeros, R., and Shannon, M. F., Costimulation of cytokine gene expression in T cells by the human T leukemia lymphotropic virus type 1 trans activator tax, J. Virol., in press, 1996.
82. Smith, M. R. and Greene, W. C., Identification of HTLV-1 tax trans-activator mutants exhibiting novel transcriptional phenotypes, Gene Dev., 4, 1875, 1990.
83. Cockerill, P. N., Osborne, C. S., Bert, A. G., and Grotto, R. J. M., Regulation of GM-CSF gene transcription by core-binding factor, Cell Growth Differ., in press, 1996.
84. Redondo, J. M., Pfohl, J. L., Hernandez-Munain, C., Wang, S., Speck, N. A., and Krangel, M. S., Indistinguishable nuclear factor binding to functional core sites of the T-cell receptor d and murine leukemia virus enhancers, Mol. Cell. Biol., 12, 4817, 1992.
85. Haira, A., Lui, P. P., Wang, Q., Kelley, C. A., Stacy, T., Adelstein, R. S., Speck, N. A., and Collins, F. S., The leukemic core binding factor β-smooth muscle myosin heavy chain (CBFb-SMMHC) chimeric protein requires both CBFb and myosin heavy chain domains for transformation of NIH 3T3 cells, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 92, 1926, 1995.
86. Tanaka, T., Tanaka, K., Ogawa, S., Kurokawa, M., Mitani, K., Nishida, J., Shibata, Y., Yazaki, Y., and Hirai, H., An acute myeloid leukemia gene, AML1, regulates myeloid cell differentiation and transcriptional activation antagonistically by two alternatively spliced forms, EMBO J., 14, 341, 1995.
87. Meyers, S., Lenny, N., and Heibert, S. W., The t(8;21) fusion protein interferes with AML-1B-dependent transcriptional activation, Mol. Cell. Biol., 15, 1974, 1995.
88. Nucifora, G. and Rowley, J. D., AML1 and the 8;21 and 3;21 translocations in acute and chronic myeloid leukemia, Blood, 86, 1, 1995.
89. Takahashi, A., Satake, M., Yamaguchi-Iwa, Y., Bae, S., Lu, J., Maruyama, M., Zhang, Y. W., Oka, H., Arai, K., and Ito, Y., Positive and negative regulation of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor promoter activity by AML1-related transcription factor, PEBP2, Blood, 86, 607, 1995.
90. Frank, R., Zhang, J., Uchida, H., Meyers, S., Heibert, S. W., and Nimer, S. D., The AML1/ETO fusion protein blocks transactivation of the GM-CSF promoter by AML1B, Oncogene, 11, 2667, 1995.
91. a. Perkins, N. D., Edwards, N. L., Duckett, C. S., Agranoff, A. B., Schmid, R. M., and Nabel, G. J., A cooperative interaction between NF-κB and Sp1 is required for HIV-1 enhancer activation, EMBO J., 12, 3551, 1993.
92. Nimer, S. D. and Uchida, H., Regulation of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin 3 expression, Stem Cells, 13, 324, 1995.
93. Patil, R. R. and Borch, R. F., Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor expression by human fibroblasts is both upregulated and subsequently downregulated by interleukin-1, Blood, 85, 80, 1995.
94. Tobler, A., Meier, R., Seitz, M., Dewald, B., Baggiolini, M., and Fey, M. F., Glucocorticoids downregulate gene expression of GM-CSF, NAP-1/ FL-8, and IL-6, but not of M-CSF in human fibroblasts, Blood, 79, 45, 1992.
95. Hamilton, J. A., Piccoli, D. S., Cebon, J., Layton, J. E., Rathanaswani, P., McColl, S. R., and Leizer, T., Cytokine regulation of colony-stimulating factor (CSF) production in cultured human synovial fibroblasts. II. Similarities and differences in the control of interleukin-1 induction of granulocyte-macrophage CSF and granulocyte-CSF production, Blood, 79, 1413, 1992.
96. Göllner, G., Aman, M. J., Steffens, H. P., Huber, C., Peschel, C., and Derigs, H. G., Interferon-α (IFN-α) inhibits granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) expression at the post-transcriptional level in murine bone marrow stromal cells, Br. J. Haematol., 91, 8, 1995.
97. Thorens, B., Mermod, J-J., and Vassalli, P., Phagocytosis and inflammatory stimuli induce GM-CSF mRNA in macrophages through posttranscriptional regulation, Cell, 48, 671, 1987.
98. Akahane, K. and Pluznik, D. H., Interleukin-4 inhibits interleukin-1α-induced granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene expression in a murine B-lymphocyte cell line via downregulation of RNA precursor, Blood, 79, 3188, 1992.
99. Akahane, K., Cohen, R. B., Bickel, M., and Pluznik, D. H., IL-1α induces granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene expression in murine B lymphocyte cell lines via mRNA stabilization, J. Immunol., 146, 4190, 1991.
100. Pluznik, D. H., Lee, N. S., and Sawada, T., Taxol induces the hematopoietic growth factor granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in murine 2 B-cells by stabilization of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor nuclear RNA, Cancer Res., 54, 4150, 1994.
101. Falkenburg, F. J. H., Harrington, M. A., de Paus, R. A., Walsh, W. K., Daub, R., Landegent, J. E., and Broxmeyer, H. E., Differential transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression of the colony-stimulating factors by interleukin-1 and fetal bovine serum in murine fibroblasts, Blood, 78, 658, 1991.
102. Koeffler, H. P., Gasson, J., and Tobler, A., Transcriptional and posttranscriptional modulation of myeloid colony-stimulating factor expression by tumor necrosis factor and other agents, Mol. Cell. Biol., 8, 3432, 1988.
103. Slack, J. L., Nemunaitis, J., Andrews, D. F., and Singer, J. W., Regulation of cytokine and growth factor gene expression in human bone marrow stromal cells transformed with simian virus 40, Blood, 75, 2319, 1990.
104. Kaushansky, K., Control of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor production in normal endothelial cells by positive and negative regulatory elements, J. Immunol., 43, 2525, 1989.
105. Coles, L. S., Occhiodoro, F., Vadas, M. A., and Shannon, M. F., A sequence-specific single-strand DNA binding protein that contacts repressor sequences in the human GM-CSF promoter, Nucleic Acids Res., 22, 4276, 1994.
106. Nimer, S. D., Gates, M. J., Koeffler, H. P., and Gasson, J. C., Multiple mechanisms control the expression of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor by human fibroblasts, J. Immunol., 143, 2374, 1989.
107. Cockerill, G. W., Bert, A. G., Ryan, G. R., Gamble, J. R., Vadas, M. A., and Cockerill, P. N., Regulation of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and E-selectin expression in endothelial cells by cyclosporin A and the T-cell transcription factor NFAT, Blood, 86, 2689, 1995.
108. Derigs, H. G., Reifel-Miller, A., Kaushansky, K., Hromas, R. A., and Boswell, H. S., Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor expression is regulated at transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels in a murine bone marrow stromal cell line, Exp. Hematol., 22, 924, 1994.
109. Rizzo, M. T. and Boswell, H. S., Regulation of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor-α induced granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene expression: potential involvement of arachidonic acid metabolism, Exp. Hematol., 22, 87, 1994.
110. Kuczek, E. S., Shannon, M. F., Pell, L. M., and Vadas, M. A., A granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor gene promoter element responsive to inflammatory mediators is functionally distinct from an identical sequence in the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene, J. Immunol., 146, 2426, 1991.
111. Shannon, M. F., Coles, L. S., Fielke, R. K., Goodall, G. J., Lagnado, C. A., and Vadas, M. A., Three essential promoter elements mediate tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1 activation of the granulocyte-colony stimulating factor gene. Growth Factors, 1, 118, 1992.
112. Hunter, T. and Karin, M., The regulation of transcription by phosphorylation, Cell, 70, 375, 1992.
113. Herschbach, B. M. and Johnson, A. D., Transcriptional repression in eukaryotes, Annu. Rev. Cell Biol., 9, 479, 1993.
114. Van Holde, K., The omnipotent nucleosome, Nature, 362, 111, 1993.
115. Workman, J. L. and Buchman, A. R., Multiple functions of nucleosomes and regulatory factors in transcription, TIBS, 18, 90, 1993.
116. Cowell, I. G., Repression versus activation in the control of gene transcription, TIBS, 18, 38, 1994.
117. Johnson, A. D., The price of repression, Cell, 81, 655, 1995.
118. Ernst, P. and Smale, S. T., Combinatorial regulation of transcription I: general aspects of transcriptional control, Immunity, 2, 311, 1995.
119. Siebenlist, U., Franzoso, G., and Brown, K., Structure, regulation, and function of NF-κB, Annu. Rev. Cell Biol., 10, 405, 1994.
120. Tsukada, J., Saito, K., Waterman, W. R., Webb, A. C., and Auron, P. E., Transcription factors NF-IL6 and CREB recognize a common essential site in the human prointerleukin 1β gene, Mol. Cell. Biol., 14, 7285, 1994.
121. Oliveira, I. C., Mukaida, N., Matsushima, K., and Vilcek, J., Transcriptional inhibition of the interleukin-8 gene by interferon is mediated by the NF-κB site, Mol. Cell. Biol., 14, 5300, 1994.
122. Fong, C. W., Siddiqui, A. H., and Mark, D. F., Identification and characterization of a novel repressor site in the human tumor necrosis α gene, Nucleic Acids Res., 22, 1108, 1994.
123. Iademarco, M. F., McQuillan, J. J., and Dean, D. C., Vascular cell adhesion molecule 1: contrasting transcriptional control mechanisms in muscle and endothelium, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 90, 3943, 1993.
124. Nomiyama, H., Hieshima, K., Hirokawa, K., Hattori, T., Takatsuki, K., and Miura, R., Characterization of cytokine LD78 gene promoters: positive and negative transcriptional factors bind to a negative regulatory element common to LD78, interleukin-3, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene promoters, Mol. Cell. Biol., 13, 2787, 1993.
125. Pescini, R., Kaszubksa, W., Whelan, J., DeLamarter, J. F., and von Huijsduijen, R., ATF-aO, a novel variant of the ATF/CREB transcription factor family, forms a dominant transcription inhibitor in ATF-a heterodimers, J. Biol. Chem., 269, 1159, 1994.
126. Harada, H., Fujita, T., Miyamoto, M., Kimura, Y., Maruyama, M., Furia, A., Miyata, T., and Taniguchi, T., Structurally similar but functionally distinct factors, IRF-1 and IRF-2, bind to the same regulatory elements of IFN and IFN-inducible genes, Cell, 58, 729, 1989.
127. Wang, Z-Y., Lin, X-H., Nobuyoshi, M., and Deuel, T. F., Identification of a single-stranded DNA-binding protein that interacts with an S1 nuclease-sensitive region in the platelet-derived growth factor A-chain gene promoter, J. Biol. Chem., 268, 10681, 1993.
128. Chen, L. L., Clawson, M. L., Bilgrami, S., and Carmichael, G., A sequence-specific single-stranded DNA-binding protein that is responsive to epidermal growth factor recognizes an S1 nuclease-sensitive region in the epidermal growth factor receptor promoter, Cell Growth Differ., 4, 975, 1993.
129. Hollingsworth, M. A., Closken, C., Harris, A., McDonald, C. D., Pahwa, G. S., and Maher III, L. J., A nuclear factor that binds purine-rich, single-stranded oligonucleotides derived from S1-sensitive elements upstream of the CFTR gene and the MUC1 gene, Nucleic Acids Res., 22, 1138, 1994.
130. Mukherjee, R. and Chambon, P., A single-stranded DNA-binding protein promotes the binding of the purified oestrogen receptor to its responsive element, Nucleic Acids Res., 18, 5713, 1990.
131. Duncan, R., Bazar, L., Michelotti, G., Tomonaga, T., Krutzsch, H., Avigan, M., and Levens, D., A sequence-specific, single-strand binding protein activates the far upstream element of c-myc and defines a new DNA-binding motif, Genes Dev., 8, 465, 1994.
132. Haas, S., Steplewski, A., Siracusa, L. D., Amini, S., and Khalili, K., Identification of a sequence-specific single-stranded DNA binding protein that suppresses transcription of the mouse myelin basic protein gene, J. Biol. Chem., 270, 12503, 1995.
133. a. Coles, L. S., Diamond, P., Occhiodoro, F., Vadas, M. A., and Shannon, M. F., Cold shock domain proteins repress transcription from the GM-CSF promoter, Nucleic Acids Res., 24, 2311, 1996.
134. Wistow, G., Cold shock and DNA binding, Nature, 344, 823, 1990.
135. Wolffe, A. P., Tafuri, S., Ranjan, M., and Familari, M., The Y-box factors: a family of nucleic acid binding proteins conserved from Escherichia coli to man, New Biologist, 4, 290, 1992.
136. Wolffe, A. P., Structural and functional properties of the evolutionary ancient Y-box family of nucleic acid binding proteins, BioEssays, 16, 245, 1994.
137. Jones, P. G. and Inouye, M., The cold-shock response - a hot topic, Mol. Microbiol., 11, 811, 1994.
138. Ladomery, M. and Sommerville, J., A role for Y-box proteins in cell proliferation, BioEssays, 17, 9, 1995.
139. Sakura, H., Maekawa, T., Imamoto, F., Yasuda, K., and Ishii, S., Two human genes isolated by a novel method encode DNA-binding proteins containing a common region of homology, Gene, 73, 499, 1988.
140. Didier, D. K., Schiffenbauer, J., Woulfe, S. L., Zacheis, M., and Schwartz, B. D., Characterization of the cDNA encoding a protein binding to the major histocompatibility complex class II Y box, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85, 7322, 1988.
141. Grant, C. E. and Deeley, R. G., Cloning and characterization of chicken YB-1: regulation of expression in the liver, Mol. Cell. Biol., 13, 4186, 1993.
142. Ozer, J., Faber, M., Chalkey, R., and Sealy, L., Isolation and characterization of a cDNA clone for the CCAAT transcription factor EFIA reveals a novel structural motif, J. Biol. Chem., 265, 22143, 1990.
143. Kolluri, R., Torey, T. A., and Kinniburgh, A. J., A CT promoter element binding protein: definition of a double-strand and a novel single-strand DNA binding motif, Nucleic Acids Res., 20, 111, 1992.
144. Tafuri, S. R. and Wolffe, A. P., Xenopus Y-box transcription factors: molecular cloning, functional analysis, and developmental regulation, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 87, 9028, 1990.
145. Hasegawa, S. L., Doetsch, P. W., Hamilton, K. K., Martin, A. M., Okenquist, S. A., Lenz, J., and Boss, J. M., DNA binding properties of YB-1 and dbpA: binding to double-stranded, single-stranded, and abasic site containing DNAs, Nucleic Acids Res., 19, 4915, 1991.
146. Spitovsky, D. D., Royer-Pokora, B., Delius, H., Kisseljov, F., Jenkins, N. A., Gilbert, D. J., Copeland, N. G., and Royer, H., Tissue restricted expression and chromosomal localization of the YB-1 gene encoding a 42kD nuclear CCAAT binding protein, Nucleic Acids Res., 20, 797, 1992.
147. Horwitz, E. M., Maoney, K. A., and Ley, T. J., A human protein containing a "cold shock" domain binds specifically to H-DNA upstream from the human γ-globin gene, J. Biol. Chem., 269, 14130, 1994.
148. Tafuri, S. R. and Wolffe, A. P., DNA binding, multimerization, and transcription stimulation by the Xenopus Y box proteins in vitro, New Biologist, 4, 349, 1992.
149. Tafuri, S. R., Familari, M., and Wolffe, A. P., A mouse Y box protein, MSY1, is associated with paternal mRNA in spermatocytes, J. Biol. Chem., 268, 12213, 1993.
150. Ranjan, M., Tafuri, S. R., and Wolffe, A. P., Masking mRNA from translation in somatic cells, Genes Dev., 7, 1725, 1993.
151. 3+, Biochemistry, 33, 13910, 1994.
152. Bouvet, P., Matsumoto, K., and Wolffe, A. P., Sequence-specific RNA recognition by the Xenopus Y-box proteins, J. Biol. Chem., 270, 28297, 1995.
153. Folmer, R. H. A., Nilges, M., Konigs, R. N. H., and Hilbers, C. W., Solution structure of the single-stranded DNA binding protein of the filamentous Pseudomonas phage Pf3: similarity to other proteins binding to single-stranded nucleic acids, EMBO J., 14, 4132, 1995.
154. Landsman, D., RNP-1, an RNA-binding motif is conserved in the DNA-binding cold shock domain, Nucleic Acids Res., 20, 2861, 1992.
155. Shroder, K., Graumann, P., Schnuchel, A., Holak, T. A., and Marahiel, M. A., Mutational analysis of the putative nucleic acid-binding surface of the coldshock domain, CspB, revealed an essential role of aromatic and basic residues in binding of single-stranded DNA containing the Y-box motif, Mol. Microbiol., 16, 699, 1995.
156. Kashanchi, F., Duvall, J. F., Dittmer, J., Mireskandari, A., Reid, R. L., Gitlin, S. D., and Brady, J. N., Involvement of transcription factor YB-1 in human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I basal gene expression, J. Virol., 68, 561, 1994.
157. Lloberas, J., Maki, R. A., and Celada, A., Repression of major histocompatibility complex I-Aβ gene expression by dbpA and dbpB (mYB-1) proteins, Mol. Cell. Biol., 15, 5092, 1995.
158. Ting, J. P., Painter, A., Zeleznik-Le, N. J., MacDonald, G., Moore, T. M., Brown, A., and Schwartz, B. D., YB-1 DNA-binding protein represses interferon γ activation of class II major histocompatibility complex genes, J. Exp. Med., 179, 1605, 1994.
159. Kerr, D., Chang, C., Chen, N., Gallia, G., Raj, G., Schwartz, B., and Khalili, K., Transcription of a human neurotropic virus promoter in glial cells: effects of YB-1 on expression of the JC virus late gene, J. Virol., 68, 7637, 1994.
160. MacDonald, G. H., Ito-Lindstrom, Y., and Ting, J. P., The transcriptional regulatory protein, YB-1, promotes single-stranded regions in the DRA promoter, J. Biol. Chem., 270, 3527, 1995.
161. Fiorentini, P., Musso, M., Penco, S., Giuffrida, R., Pistoia, V., Garré, C., and Bianchi-Scarrà, G., Characterization of a distal 5′-flanking region (-2010/-630) of human GM-CSF, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm., 214, 1015, 1995.
162. Fraser, J. K., Guerra, J. J., Nguyen, C. Y., Indes, J. E., Gasson, J. C., and Nimer, S. D., Characterization of a cell-type-restricted negative regulatory
163. Mathey-Prevot, B., Andrews, N. C., Murphy, H. S., Kreissman, S. G., and Nathan, D. G., Positive and negative elements regulate human interleukin 3 expression, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 87, 5046, 1990.
164. Ye, J., Zhang, X., and Dong, Z., Characterization of the human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene promoter: an AP1 complex and an Sp1-related complex transactivate the promoter activity that is suppressed by a YY1 complex, Mol. Cell. Biol., 16, 157, 1996.
165. Ye, J., Young, H. A., Ortaldo, J. R., and Ghosh, P., Identification of a DNA binding site for the nuclear factor YY1 in the human GM-CSF core promoter, Nucleic Acids Res., 22, 5672, 1994.
166. Shi, Y., Seto, E., Chang, L-S., and Shenk, T., Transcriptional repression by YY1, human GLI-Krüppel-related protein, and relief of repression by adenovirus E1A protein, Cell, 67, 377, 1991.
167. Seto, E., Shi, Y., and Shenk, T., YY1 is an initiator sequence-binding protein that directs and activates transcription in vitro, Nature, 354, 241, 1991.
168. Thanos, D. and Maniatis, T., Virus induction of human IFNb gene expression requires the assembly of an enhanceosome, Cell, 83, 1091, 1995.