Cognitive enhancement therapy for Alzheimer's disease. The way forward

Drugs

Volumn 53, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 752-768

  Parnetti, Lucilla ^a   Senin, Umberto ^a   Mecocci, Patrizia ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PERUGIA   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

21 AMINOSTEROID; ACETYLCHOLINE; ALUMINUM; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; ANTIOXIDANT; CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITOR; DEFEROXAMINE; DONEPEZIL; GALANTAMINE; GANGLIOSIDE; HEPTYLSTIGMINE TARTRATE; HUPERZINE A; IDEBENONE; LAZAROID; METRIFONATE; NOOTROPIC AGENT; PHOSPHOPROTEIN PHOSPHATASE; PHYSOSTIGMINE; PIRACETAM; PROTEIN KINASE; PYRROLOPYRIMIDINE DERIVATIVE; RIVASTIGMINE; RO 46 5934; SELEGILINE; TACRINE; TIRILAZAD; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VELNACRINE MALEATE; VITAMIN;

AGRANULOCYTOSIS; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITION; DEMENTIA; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; ENZYME ACTIVITY; HUMAN; INTRACEREBROVENTRICULAR DRUG ADMINISTRATION; INTRAMUSCULAR DRUG ADMINISTRATION; LIVER TOXICITY; NERVE DEGENERATION; NEUTROPENIA; NONHUMAN; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PAIN; PAIRED HELICAL FILAMENT; PALLIATIVE THERAPY; PROTEIN SYNTHESIS INHIBITION; REVIEW; SUBCUTANEOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION;

EID: 0030976004     PISSN: 00126667     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00003495-199753050-00003     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Bush TL, Miller SR, Criqui MN, et al. Risk factors for morbidity and mortality in older population: an epidemiological approach. In Hazzard WR, Bierman EL, Blass JP, et al., editors. Principles of geriatric medicine and gerontology. New York: McGraw Hill, 1994: 153-66
2. Keefover RW. The clinical epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease. Neuroepidemiology 1996; 14: 337-51
3. Reisberg B, Ferris SH, de Leon MJ, et al. The stage specific temporal course of Alzheimer's disease: functional and behavioral concomitants based upon cross-sectional and longitudinal observation. In: Iqbal K, Wisniewski HM, Winblad B, editors. Alzheimer's disease and related disorders. New York: Alan R. Liss Inc., 1991: 23-41
4. Bobinski M, Weigel J, Wisniewski HM, et al. Atrophy of hippocampal formation subdivisions correlates with stage and duration of Alzheimer disease. Dementia 1995; 6: 205-10
5. Nitsch RM, Rebeck WG, Deng M, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid levels of amyloid beta-protein in Alzheimers disease: inverse correlation with severity of dementia and effect of apolipoprotein E genotype. Ann Neurol 1995; 37: 512-8
6. Cai X, Golde TE, Younkin SG, et al. Release of excess amyloid β protein from a mutant amyloid β protein precursor. Science 1993; 259: 514-6
7. Dyrks T, Dyrks E, Hartmann T, et al. Amyloidogenicity of β-A4 and βA4-bearing amyloid protein precursor fragments by metal-catalyzed oxidation. J Biol Chem 1992; 267: 18210-7
8. Smith CD, Carney JM, Starke-Reed PE, et al. Excess brain protein oxidation and enzyme dysfunction in normal aging and Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88: 10540-3
9. Subbarao KV, Richardson JS, Ang LC. Autopsy samples of Alzheimers cortex show increased peroxidation in vitro. J Neurochem 1990; 55: 342-5
10. Hujimohammadreza I, Brammer M. Brain membrane fluidity and lipid peroxidation in Alzheimers disease. Neurosci Lett 1990; 112: 333-7
11. Lovell MA, Ehmann WD, Butler SM, et al. Elevated thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances and antioxidant enzyme activity in the brain in Alzheimers disease. Neurology 1995; 45: 1594-601
12. Mecocci P, MacGarvey U, Beal MF. Oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA is increased in Alzheimers disease. Ann Neurol 1994; 36: 747-51
13. Kish SJ, Bergeron C, Rajput A, et al. Braincylochrome oxidase in Alzheimers disease. J Neurochem 1992; 59: 776-9
14. Mutisya EM, Bowling AC, Beal MF. Cortical cytochrome oxidase activity is reduced in Alzheimers disease. J Neurochem 1994; 63: 2179-84
15. Benzi G, Moretti A. Are reactive oxygen species involved in Alzheimers disease? Neurobiol Aging 1995; 16: 661-74
16. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Role of free radicals and catalytic metal ions in human disease: an overview. Methods Enzymol 1990; 186: 1-85
17. 2-induced neuron degeneration in vitro [abstract]. Soc Neurosci Abstr 1991; 17: 1447
18. Rogers J. Inflammation as a pathogenic mechanism in Alz7 heimers disease. Arztl Forsch 1995; 45: 439-42
19. Rogers J, Cooper NR, Webster S, et al. Complement activation by beta-amyloid in Alzheimer's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 10016-20
20. Snow AD, Sekiguchi R, Nochlin D, et al. An important role of heparan sulfate proteoglycan (Perlecan) in a model system for the deposition and persistence of fibrillar A beta-amyloid in rat brain. Neuron 1994; 12: 219-34
21. Altstiel L, Sperber K. Cytokines in Alzheimers disease. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1991; 15: 481-95
22. Donnelly RJ, Friedhoff AJ, Beer B, et al. Interleukin-1 stimulates the beta-amyloid precursor protein promoter. Cell Mol Neurobiol 1990; 10: 485-95
23. Summers KL, Cuadra G, Naritoku D, et al. Effects of nicotine levels on acetylcholine and biogenic amines in rat cortex. Drug Dev Res 1994; 31: 108-19
24. Cuadra G, Giacobini E. Effects of cholinesterase inhibitors and clonidine coadministration on rat cortex neurotransmitters in vivo. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1995; 275: 228-36
25. Janson AM, Moller A. Chronic nicotine treatment counteracts nigral cell loss induced by a partial mesiodiencephalic hemitransection: an analysis of the total number and mean volume of neurons and glia in substantia nigra of the male rat. Neuroscience 1993; 4: 931-41
26. Sjak-snie NN, Burks JN, Meyer EM. Long-term actions on nicotinic receptor stimulation in nucleus basalis lesioned rats: blockade of trans-synaptic cell loss. In: Nagatsu T, Fisher A, Yoshida M, editors. Advances in behavioral biology. Vol. 2. New York: Plenum Press, 1990: 471-5
27. Nitsch RM, Farber SA, Growdon JH, et al. Release of amyloid β-protein precursor derivatives by electrical depolarization of rat hippocampal slices. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 5191-3
28. Buxbaum JD, Oishi M, Chen HI, et al. Cholinergic agonists and interleukin 1 regulate processing and secretion of the Alzheimer β/A4 amyloid protein precursor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 10075-8
29. Lindfors N, Ernfors P, Falkenberg T, et al. Septal cholinergic afferents regulate expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and beta-nerve growth factor mRNA in rat hippocampus. Exp Brain Res 1992; 88: 78-90
30. Berzaghi M, Cooper J, Castren E, et al. Cholinergic regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor but not neurotrophin-3 mRNA levels in the developing rat hippocampus. J Neurosci 1993; 13: 3818-26
31. Kumar V. Introduction to cholinesterase inhibitors used in Alzheimer's disease therapy. In: Giacobini E, Becker RE, editors. Alzheimer's disease: therapeutic strategies. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1994: 99-102
32. Becker RE, Giacobini E. Mechanisms of cholinesterase inhibition in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type: clinical, pharmacological, and therapeutic aspects. Drug Dev Res 1988; 12: 163-95
33. Kumar V, Becker RK. Clinical pharmacology of tetrahydroaminoacridine: a possible therapeutic agent for Alzheimer's disease. Int J Pharmacol Toxicol 1989; 27: 478-85
34. Kumar V, Calache M. Treatment of Alzheimer disease with cholinergic drugs. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1991; 29: 25-37
35. Bierer LM, Aisen PS, Davidson M, et al. A pilot study of oral physostigmine plus yohimbine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Alz Dis Assoc Disord 1993; 7: 98-104
36. Gauthier S, Bouchard R, Lamontagne A, et al. Tetrahydroammoacridine-lecithin combination treatment in patients with intermediate-stage Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 1990; 322 (18): 1272-6
37. Wurtman RJ, Blusztajn JK, Growdon JH, et al. Cholinesterase inhihitors increase the brain's need for free choline. In: Giacohini E, Becker R, editors. Current research in Alzheimer's therapy. New York: Taylor and Francis, 1988: 95-100
38. Wilcock GK, Harrold PL. Treatment of Alzheimer's disease: future directions. Acta Neurol Scand 1996; suppl. 165: 128-36
39. Becker R, Moriearty P, Unni L. The second generation of cholinesterase inhibitors: clinical and pharmacological effects. In: Becker RE, Giacobini E, editors. Cholinergic basis for Alzheimer therapy. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1991: 263-96
40. Summers WK, Majovski LV, Marsh GM, et al. Oral tetrahydroammoacridine in long-term treatment of senile dementia, Alzheimer type. N Engl J Med 1986; 315: 1241-5
41. Eagger SA, Levy R, Sahakian BJ. Tacrine in Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 1991; 337: 989-92
42. Davis KL, Thai LJ, Gamzu ER, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study of tacrine for Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 1253-9
43. Farlow M, Gracon SI, Hershey LA, et al. A controlled trial of tacrine in Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1992; 268: 2523-9
44. Wilcock GK, Surmon DJ, Scott M, et al. An evaluation of the efficacy and safety of tetrahydroaminoacridine (THA) without lecithin in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Age Aging 1993; 22: 316-24
45. Knapp MJ, Knopman DS, Solomon PR, et al. A 30-week randomized controlled trial of high-dose tacrine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1994; 271: 985-91
46. Eagger SA, Richards M, Levy R. Long-term effects of tacrine in Alzheimers disease: an open study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1994; 9: 643-7
47. The tacrine experience [editorial]. Eur J Neurol 1996: 3: S1-8
48. Brufani M, Mara M, Pomponi M. Anticholinesterase activity of a new carbamate, heptylphysostigmine, in view of its use in patients with Alzheimer-type dementia. Eur J Biochem 1986; 157: 115-20
49. Canal N, Imhimbo B, for the Eptastigmine Study Group. Clinical trial and therapeutics: relationship between pharmacodynamic activity and cognitive effects of eptastigmine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996; 60: 218-28
50. Canal N, Franceschi M, Italian Eptastigmine Investigators: Eptastigmine (MF-201). A double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical trial in Alzheimer disease patients. In: Giacobini E, Becker R, editors. Alzheimer disease: therapeutic strategies. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1994; 108-12
51. Siegfred K. The pharmacodynamics of velnacrine: results and conclusion from clinical studies in healthy subjects and patients with Alzheimer's disease. In: Wilcock GK, editor. The management of Alzheimer's disease. Wrightson Biomedical Publishing, 1993: 189-201
52. Siegfred K, Civil R. Clinical update of velnacrine research. In: Giacobini E, Becker R, editors. Alzheimer disease: therapeutic strategies. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1994: 150-4
53. Moore MJ, Clipp EC. Alzheimer's disease and caregiver time. Lancet 1994; 341: 239-40
54. Rogers SL, Friedhoff LT. The efficacy and safety of donepezil in patients with Alzheimer's disease: results of a US multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Dementia 1996; 7: 293-303
55. Enz A, Amstutz R, Boddeke H, et al. Brain selective inhibition of acetylcholinesterase: a novel approach to therapy for Alzheimer's disease. Progr Brain Res 1993; 98: 431-8
56. Croisile B, Trillet M, Fondarai J, et al. Long-term and high-dose piracetam treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993; 43: 301-5
57. Senin U, Abate G, Fieschi C, et al. Aniracetam (Ro 13-50571 in the treatment of senile dementia of Alzheimer type (SDAT): results of a placebo controlled multicenler clinical study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1991; 1: 511-7
58. Sabel BA, Slavin MD, Stein DG. GM1 ganglioside treatment facilitates behavioural recovery from bilateral brain damage. Science 1984; 225: 340-2
59. Svennerholm L, Gottfries CG. Membrane lipids selectively diminished in Alzheimer brains suggest synapse loss a primary event in early-onset form (Type I) and demyelination in late-onset form (Type II). J Neurochem 1994; 62: 1039-47
60. Svennerholm L, Gottfries CG, Blennow K, et al. Parenteral administration of GM1 ganglioside to presentile Alzheimers patients. Acta Neurol Scand 1990; 81: 45-53
61. Augustinsson LE, Blennow K, Blomstrand C, et al. Intracerebroventricular administration of GM1 ganglioside to presenile Alzheimer patients. Dementia. In press
62. Schubert D, Jin L-W, Saitoh T, Cole G. The regulation of amyloid beta precursor protein and its modulatory role in cell adhesion. Neuron 1989; 3: 689-94
63. Milward EA, Papadopoulus R, Fuller SJ, et al. The amyloid protein precursor of Alzheimer's disease is a mediator of the effects of nerve growth factor on neurite outgrowth. Neuron 1992; 9: 129-37
64. Mattson MP, Cheng B, Culwell AR, et al. Evidence for excitoprotective and intraneuronal calcium-regulating. Neuron 1993; 10: 243-54
65. Nitsch RM, Growdon JH. Role of neurotransmission in the regulation of amyloid β-protein precursor processing. Biochem Pharmacol 1994; 47: 1275-84
66. Morel A, O'Carroll A-M, Brownstein MJ, et al. Molecular cloning and expression of a rat V1a arginine vasopressin receptor. Nature 1992; 356: 523-6
67. 2 bradykinin receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88: 7724-8
68. Nitsch RM, Wurtman RJ, Growdon JH. Regulation of proteolylic processing of the amyloid β-protein precursor by first messengers. A novel potential approach for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Arztl Forsch 1995; 45: 435-8
69. Li K. The role of β-amyloid in the development of Alzheimer's disease. Drugs Aging 1995; 7: 97-109
70. Strittmatter WJ, Saunders AM, Schmechel D, et al. Apolipoprotein E: high avidity binding to β-amyloid and increased frequency of type 4 allele in late-onset familial Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 1977-81
71. Mattson MP, Cheng B, David D, et al. Beta-amyloid peptides destabilize calcium homeostasis and render human cortical neurons vulnerable to excitotoxicity. J Neurosci 1992; 12: 376-89
72. Arispe N, Roja E, Pollard HB. Alzheimer's disease amyloid beta protein forms calcium channels in bilayer membranes: blockade by tromethamine and aluminum. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 567-71
73. Copani A, Koh JY, Cotman CW. Beta-amyloid increases neuronal susceptibility to injury by glucose deprivation. Neurol Rep 1991: 2: 763-5
74. Dickson DW, Rogers J. Neuroimmunology of Alzheimer's disease: a conference report. Neurobiol Aging 1992; 13: 793-8
75. Dickson DW, Farlo J, Davies P, et al. Alzheimer's disease: a double-labeling immunohistochemical study of senile plaques. Am J Pathol 1988; 132: 86-101
76. Grundke-Iqhal I, Iqbal K, Quinlan M, et al. Microtubule-associated protein tau: a component of Alzheimer paired helical filaments. J Biol Chem 1986; 261: 6084-9
77. Grundke-Iqbal I, Iqbal K, Tung Y-C, et al. Abnormal phosphorylation of the microtubule-associaled prolein tau in Alzheimer cytoskelelal pathology. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986; 83: 4913-7
78. Iqbal K, Grundke-Iqbal I, Smith AJ, et al. Identification and localization of a tau peptide to paired helical filaments of Alzheimer's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 86: 5646-50
79. Papasozomenos SCh, Su Y. Rapid dephosphorylation of τ in heat-shocked fetal rat cerebral explants: prevention and hyperphosphorylation by inhibitors of protein phosphatases PP1 and PP2A. J Neurochem 1995; 65: 396-406
80. Shimohama S, Fujimoto S, Taniguchi T, et al. Reduction of low-molecular-weight acid phosphatase activity in Alzheimer's brains. Ann Neurol 1993; 33: 616-21
81. Saito T, Ishiguro K, Uchida T, et al. In situ dephosphorylation of tau by protein phosphalase 2A and 2B in fetal rat primary cultured neurons. FEBS Lett 1995; 376: 238-42
82. Fleming LM, Johnson GVW. Modulation of the phosphorylation state of tau in situ: the roles of calcium and cyclic AMP. Biochem J 1995; 309: 41-7
83. Jin LW, Saitoh T. Changes in protein kinases in brain aging and Alzheimers disease: implications for drug therapy. Drugs Aging 1995; 6: 136-49
84. Masliah E, Cole G, Shimohama S, et al. Differential involvement of protein kinase C isozymes in Alzheimers disease. J Neurosci 1990; 10: 2113-24
85. Greenberg SM, Kosik KS. Secreted β-APP stimulates MAP kinase and phosphorylation of tau in neurons. Neurobiol Aging; 16:403-8
86. Richardson JS, Subbarau KV, Ang LC. Autopsy Alzheimer's brains show increased peroxidation to an in vitro iron challenge. In: Iqbal K, McLachlan DRC, Winblad B, et al., editors. Alzheimer's disease: basic mechanisms, diagnosis and therapeutic strategies. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 1991: 145-52
87. Gotz ME, Freyberger A, Hauer E, et al. Susceptibility of brains from patients with Alzheimer's disease to oxygen-stimulated lipid peroxidation and differential scanning colorimetry. Dementia 1992; 3: 213-22
88. Murakami M, Zs-Nagy I. Superoxide radical scavenging activity of idebenone in vitro studied by ESR spin trapping method and direct ESR measurement at liquid nitrogen temperature. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 1990; 11: 199-214
89. Zs-Nagy I, Floyd RA. ESR spin trapping studies on the OH free radical reactions of idebenone. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 1990; 11: 215-31
90. Senin U, Parnetti L, Barbagallo-Sangiorgi G, et al. Idebenone in senile dementia of Alzheimer type: a multicentre study. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 1992: 15: 249-60
91. Nappi G, Bono G, Merlo P, et al. Long-term idebenone treatment of vascular and degenerative brain disorders of the elderly. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 1992; 15: 261-9
92. Marigliano V, Abate G, Barbagallo-Sangiorgi G, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre study of idebenone in patients suffering from multi-infarct dementia. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 1992; 15: 239-48
93. Bergamasco B, Villardita C, Coppi R. Idehenone in the treatment of multi-infarct dementia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled mullicentre trial. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 1992; 15: 2371-8
94. Hall ED. Cerebral ischemia, free radicals and antioxidant protection. Biochem Soc Trans 1993; 21: 334-9
95. Richardson JS, Kumar U, Kala SV, et al. In vitro evidence for the use of antioxidants in Alzheimers disease. In: Giacobini E, Becker R, editors. Alzheimer disease: therapeutic strategies. Boston: Birkhäuser 1994: 334-9
96. Sethy VH, Wu H, Oostveen JA, et al. Neuroprotective effects of the pyrrolopyrimidine U-I04067F in 3-acetylpyridine-treated rats. Exp Neurol 1996; 140: 79-83
97. Schulz JB, Henshaw DR, Siwek D, et al. Involvement of free radicals in excitotoxicity in vivo. J Neurochem 1995; 64: 2239-47
98. Schulz JB, Matthews RT, Jenkins BG, et al. Blockade of neuronal nitric oxide synthase protects against excitotoxicity in vivo. J Neurosci 1995; 15: 8419-29
99. Morris JC. Treatment of the cognitive symptoms of dementia [abstract]. In: Dementia update. Sec 441. 48th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Neurology; 1996 Mar 23-30: San Francisco, 63-74
100. McLachlan DR, Kruck TPA, Smith WL. Aluminum chelation therapy of Alzheimer's disease. In: Giacobini E, Becker R, editors. Alzheimer disease: therapeutic strategies. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1994: 328-33
101. McLachlan DR, Smith WL, Kruck TPA. Desferrioxamine and Alzheimer's disease: video home behavior assessment of clinical course and measures of brain aluminum. Ther Drug Monit 1993; 15: 602-7
102. Breitner JCS, Gau BA, Welsh KA, et al. Inverse association of anti-inflammatory treatments and Alzheimer's disease: initial results of a co-twin control study. Neurology 1994; 44: 227-32
103. Rogers J, Kirby LC, Hempelman SR, et al. Clinical trial of indomethacin in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993; 43: 1609-11
104. Rich JB, Rasmusson DX, Holstein MF, et al. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in Alzheimers disease. Neurology 1995; 45: 51-5
105. Andersen K, Launer LJ, Ott A, et al. Do nonsteiroidal anti-inflammatory drugs decrease the risk for Alzheimers disease? The Rotterdam study. Neurology 1995; 45: 1441-5
106. Aisen PS, Davis KL. Inflammatory mechanisms in Alzheimers disease: implications for therapy. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151: 1015-13
107. Rogers J, Schulz J, Brachova L, et al. Complement activation and β-amyloid mediated neurotoxicity in Alzheimers disease. Res Immunol 1992; 143: 624-30