Heparin therapy in pediatric patients

Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 303-319

  Sutor, Anton H ^a   Massicotte, Patricia ^a   Leaker, Michael ^a   Andrew, Maureen ^a  

^a HAMILTON HEALTH SCIENCES   (Canada)

Author keywords

Children; Heparin; Newborns; Prophylaxis; Thrombosis; Treatment

Indexed keywords

HEPARIN;

ANTICOAGULANT THERAPY; CHILD; DRUG EFFECT; HEPARINIZATION; HUMAN; INFANT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROPHYLAXIS; REVIEW; THROMBOSIS;

EID: 0030818029     PISSN: 00946176     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-996103     Document Type: Review

References (219)

1. Hirsh J: Heparin: N Engl J Med 324:1565-1574, 1991.
2. Vieira A, F Ofosu, M Andrew: Heparin sensitivity and resistance in the neonate: An explanation. Thromb Res 63:85-99, 1991.
3. Schmidt B, H Ofosu, L Mitchell, L Brooker, M Andrew: Anticoagulant effects of heparin in neonatal plasma. Pediatr Res 25:405-408, 1989.
4. Andrew M, B Schmidt, L Mitchell, B Paes, F Ofosu: Thrombin generation in newborn plasma is critically dependent on the concentration of prothrombin. Thromh Haemostas 63:27-30, 1990.
5. Andrew M, L Mitchell, P Vegh, F Ofosu: Thrombin regulation in children differs from adults in the absence and presence of heparin. Thromb Haemostas 72:836-842, 1994.
6. Schmidt B, F Ofosu, M Andrew: Heparin has a greater anticoagulation effect in neonatal than in adult plasma. Pediatr Res 21:411a, 1987.
7. Schmidt B, L Mitchell, F Ofosu, M Andrew: Standard assays underestimate the concentration of heparin in neonatal plasma. Pediatr Res 468A (Abst), 1988.
8. Andrew M, B Paes, R Milner, M Johnston, L Mitchell, D Tollefsen, P Powers: Development of the human coagulation system in the full-term infant. Blood 70:165-172, 1987.
9. Andrew M, B Paes, M Johnston: Development of the hemostatic system in the neonate and young infant. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 12:95-104, 1990.
10. Andrew M, B Paes, R Milner, M Johnston, L Mitchell, D Tollefsen, V Castle, P Powers: Development of the human coagulation system in the healthy premature infant. Blood 72:1651-1657, 1988.
11. Schmidt B, M Buchanan, F Ofosu, L Brooker, J Hirsh, M Andrew: Antithrombotic properties of heparin in a neonatal piglet model of thrombin induced thrombosis. Thromb Haemostas 60: 289-292, 1988.
12. De Swart CAM, B Nijmeyer, JMM Roelofs, JJ Sixma: Kinetics of intravenously administered heparin in normal humans. Blood 60:1251-1258, 1982.
13. Caranobe C, M Petitou, D Dupouy, AM Gabaig, P Sie, MR Buchanan, B Boneu: Heparin fractions with high and low affinities to antithrombin III are cleared at different rates. Thromb Res 43:635-641, 1986.
14. De Swart CAM, B Nijmeyer, JMM Roelofs: Kinetics of intravenously administered heparin in normal humans. Blood 60: 1251, 1982.
15. Olsson P, H Lagregren, S Ek: The elimination from plasma of intravenous heparin: An experimental study on dogs and humans. Acta Med Scand 173:619-630, 1963.
16. Bjornsson T, B Wolfram, B Kitchell: Heparin kinetics determined by three assay methods. Clin Pharmacol Ther 31:104-113, 1982.
17. Hull R, G Raskob, J Hirsh, RM Jay, JR Leclerc, D Rosenbloom, DL Sackett, C Anderson, L Harrison: Continuous intravenous heparin compared to intermittent subcutaneous heparin in the initial treatment of proximal vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 315:1109-1114, 1986.
18. Bara L, E Billaud, G Gramond, A Kher: Comparative pharmacokinetics of low molecular weight heparin (PK 10169) and unfractionated heparin after intravenous and subcutaneous administration. Thromb Res 39:631-636, 1985.
19. Turpie A, J Robinson, D Doyle: Comparison of high-dose with low-dose subcutaneous heparin to prevent left ventricular mural thrombosis in patients with acute transmural anterior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 320:352-357, 1989.
20. Andrew M, F Ofosu, B Schmidt, L Brooker, J Hirsh, M Buchanan: Heparin clearance and ex vivo recovery in newborn piglets and adult pigs. Thromb Res 52:517-527, 1988.
21. McDonald MM, LJ Jacobson, WW Hay, WE Hathaway: Heparin clearance in the newborn. Pediatr Res 15:1015-1018, 1981.
22. Rogner G: Heparin level during anticoagulant therapy in mature and premature infants. Kinderärztl Prax 44:193, 1976.
23. Turner Gomes S, E Nitschmann, L Benson, M Andrew: Heparin is cleared faster in children with congenital heart disease than adults. J Am Coll Cardiol 21:59a (Abst), 1993.
24. Domula M, G Weissbach: Heparin und Antiheparin im Kindes-alter. 3. Mitteilung:Heparinspiegelmessungen und ihre Bedeutung fur das Heparin Monitoring. Folia Haematol 110:146-161, 1983.
25. Yamada K, A Shirahata, M Inagaki, Y Miyaji, N Mori, I Horiuchi: Therapy for DIC in newborn infants. Bibl Haematol 49: 329, 1983.
26. Andrew M, P Vegh, L Mitchell: Thrombin (IIa) regulation in children differs from adults both in the absence and presence of heparin. Thromb Haemostas 69:764 (Abst), 1993.
27. Hirsh J, W van Aken, A Gallus, C Dollery, J Cade, W Yung: Heparin kinetics in venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Circulation 53:691-695, 1976.
28. Chiu H, W van Aken, J Hirsh, E Regoeczi, A Horner: Increased heparin clearance in experimental pulmonary embolism. J Lab Clin Med 90:204-215, 1977.
29. Sutor A, L Poller, J Thomson (Eds): Thrombosis in the newborn and infants. In: Thrombosis and Its Management. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1992, pp 126-133.
30. Teien AN, M Lie: Evaluation of amidolytic heparin assay method. Increased sensitivity by adding purified antithrombin III. Thromb Res 10:399-410, 1977.
31. Perry PJ, GR Herron, JC King: Heparin half life in normal and impaired renal function. Clin Pharmacol 16:514, 1974.
32. Harenberg J: Klinische Pharmakologie von Heparinen. Hämostaseologie (Germany) 12:23, 1996.
33. Schettini E, D de Mattia, A Mautone, M Altomare: Post-natal development of factor II (pre-prothrombin and prothrombin) in man. Biol Neonate 29:82, 1976.
34. Clagett G, J Reisch: Prevention of venous thromboembolism in general surgical patients. Ann Surg 208:227-240, 1988.
35. Collins R, A Scrimgeour, S Yusuf, R Peto: Reduction in fatal pulmonary embolism and venous thrombosis by perioperative administration of subcutaneous heparin: Overview of results of randomized trials in general, orthopedic, and urologic surgery. N Engl J Med 318:1162-1173, 1988.
36. Kakkar V, T Corrigan, D Fossard: Prevention of fatal postoperative pulmonary embolism by low doses of heparin. Lancet 2: 45-51, 1975.
37. Halkin H, J Goldberg, M Modan, B Modan: Reduction of mortality in general medical in-patients by low dose heparin prophylaxis. Ann Intern Med 96:561-565, 1982.
38. Leyvraz PF, J Richard, F Bachmann: Adjusted versus fixed dose subcutaneous heparin in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis after total hip replacement. N Engl J Med 309:954-958, 1983.
39. Bailey MJ: Reduction of catheter-associated sepsis in parenteral nutrition using low dose intravenous heparin. Br Med J 1: 1671-1673, 1979.
40. Appelgreen, P, U Ransjo, L Bindslev, O Larm: Does surface heparinisation reduce bacterial colonisation of central venous catheters? Lancet 345:130, 1995.
41. Fabri PJ, JM Mirtallo, ML Evvert, KA Kudskl, C Powell, RL Ruberg: Incidence and prevention of thrombosis of the subclavian vein during total parenteral nutrition. JPEN 8:705-707, 1984.
42. Fabri PJ, JM Mirtallo, RL Ruberg: Incidence and prevention of thrombosis of the subclavian vein during total parenteral nutrition. Surg Gynecol Obstet 155:238-240, 1982.
43. Fassolt A, F Brandli, U Braun: Antithrombotika zur Prophylaxe der Begleitthrombosen bei infraklavikulären vena-cava-Kathetern. Infusionstherapie 6:50-54, 1979.
44. Efsing HO, B Lindblad, J Mark: Thromboembolic complications from central venous catheters: A comparison of three catheter materials. World J Surg 7:419, 1983.
45. Ruggiero RP, TJ Aisenstein: Central catheter fibrin sleeve - Heparin effect. JPEN 7:270-273, 1983.
46. Macoviak JA, G Melnik, G McLean, A Lunderquist, R Singer, L Forlaw: The effect of low dose heparin on the prevention of venous thrombosis in patients receiving short term parenteral nutrition. Curr Surg 41:98-100, 1984.
47. Smith SM, SM Dawson, R Hennessey, M Andrew: Maintenance of the patency of indwelling central venous catheters: Is heparin necessary? Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 13:141-143, 1991.
48. Brismar B, C Hardstedt, S Jacobson, L Kager, AS Malmborg: Reduction of catheter-associated thrombosis in parenteral nutrition by intravenous heparin therapy. Arch Surg 117:1196-1199, 1982.
49. Shoaf J, S Oliver: Efficacy of normal saline injection with and without heparin for maintaining intermittent intravenous site. Appl Nurs Res 5:9-12, 1992.
50. Kleiber C, K Hanrahan, CL Fagan, MA Zittergruen: Heparin versus saline peripheral IV locks in children. Pediatr Nurs 19: 405-409, 1993.
51. Ashton J, V Gibson, S Summers: Effects of heparin versus saline solution on intermittent infusion device irrigation. Heart Lung 19:608-612, 1990.
52. Hamilton RA, JM Plia, C Clay, L Sylvan: Heparin sodium versus 0.9% sodium chloride injection for maintaining patency of indwelling intermittent infusion devices. Clin Pharm 7:439-443, 1988.
53. Meyer BA, CJ Little, JA Thorp, GR Cohen, JD Yeast: Heparin versus normal saline as a peripheral line flush in maintenance of intermittent intravenous lines in obstetric patients. Obstet Gynecol 85:433-436, 1995.
54. Bell N, D Brown, L Poon: Intermittent intravenous access device patency: Heparin and normal saline. 1989.
55. Moclair AE, M Moselhi, IS Benjamin, JF Hecker: Total parenteral nutrition via a peripheral vein: A comparison of heparinized and non-heparinized regimens. Int J Pharm Pract 1: 38-40, 1991.
56. Daniell HW: Heparin in the prevention of infusion phlebitis. A double blind controlled study. JAMA 226:1317-1321, 1973.
57. Alpan G, F Eyal, C Springer, B Glick, K Goder, J Armon: Heparinization of alimentation solutions administered through peripheral veins in premature infants. A controlled study. Pediatrics 74:375-378, 1984.
58. Treas LS, B Latinis-Bridges: Efficacy of heparin in peripheral venous infusion in neonates. JOGNN 21:214-219, 1991.
59. Wright A, J Hecker, G McDonald: Effects of low dose heparin on failure of intravenous infusions in children. Heart Lung 24: 79-82, 1995.
60. Sketch MH, M Cale, SM Mohiuddin, RW Booth: Use of percutaneously inserted venous catheters in coronary care units. Chest 62:684-689, 1972.
61. Stradling JR: Heparin and infusion phlebitis. Br Med J 2: 1195-1196, 1978.
62. Dunn DL, SF Lenihan: The case for the saline flush. Am J Nurs 6:798-799, 1987.
63. Holford NHG, S Vozeh, P Coates, JR Porvell: More on heparin locks. N Engl J Med 296:1300-1301, 1977.
64. Jackson J, W Truog, J Watchko, L Mack, D Cyr, G Van Belle: Efficacy of thromboresistant umbilical artery catethers in reducing aortic thrombosis and related complications. J Pediatr 110:102-105, 1987.
65. Horgan M, A Bartoletti, S Polonsky, J Peters, T Manning, B Lamont: Effect of heparin infusates in umbilical arterial catheters on frequency of thrombotic complications. J Pediatr 111:774-778, 1987.
66. Rajani K, B Goetzman, R Wennberg, E Turner, C Abildgaard: Effect of heparinization of fluids infused through an umbilical artery catheter on catheter patency and frequency of complications. Pediatrics 63:552-556, 1979.
67. David R, D Merten, J Anderson, S Gross: Prevention of umbilical artery catheter clots with heparinized infusates. Dev Pharm Ther 2:117-126, 1981.
68. Bosque E, L Weaver: Continuous versus intermittent heparin infusion of umbilical artery catheters in the newborn infant. J Pediatr 108:141-143, 1986.
69. Ankola P, Y Atakent: Effect of adding heparin in very low concentration to the infusate to prolong the patency of umbilical artery catheters. Am J Perinatol 10:229-232, 1993.
70. Vailas G, R Brouillette, J Scott, A Shkolnik, J Conway, K Wiringa: Neonatal aortic thrombosis: Recent experience. J Pediatr 109:101-108, 1986.
71. Oppenheimer DA, BA Carroll, KE Garth: Ultrasonic detection of complications following umbilical arterial catheterization in the neonate. Radiology 145:667, 1982.
72. Seibert JJ, BJ Taylor, SL Williamson, BT Williams, JS Szabo, SL Corbitt: Sonographic detection of neonatal umbilical-artery thrombosis. Am J Roentgenol 148:965-968, 1987.
73. Lesko S, A Mitchell, M Epstein, C Louik, G Gracoia, S Shapiro: Heparin use a risk factor for intraventricular hemorrhage in low birth weight infants. N Engl J Med 314:1156-1160, 1986.
74. Downs JB, RL Chapman, F Hawkins: Prolonged radial artery catheterization. An evaluation of heparinized catheters and continuous irrigation. Arch Surg 108:671-673, 1974.
75. American Association of Critical Care Nurses: Evaluation of the effects of heparinized and nonheparinized flush solutions on the patency of arterial pressure monitoring lines: The AACN Thunder Project. Am J Crit Care 2:3-15, 1993.
76. Butt W, F Shann, G McDonnell, I Hudson: Effect of heparin concentration and infusion rate on the patency of arterial catheters. Crit Care Med 15:230-232, 1987.
77. Hoar PF, RM Wilson, DT Mangano: Heparin bonding reduces thrombogenicity of pulmonary artery catheters. N Engl J Med 305:993-995, 1980.
78. Hawkins F, MJ Kelley: Benzalkonium-heparin-coated angiographic catheters. Experience with 563 patients. Radiology 109:589-591, 1973.
79. Judkins MP, WA Mitchell, DR Simmons, MP Gander: Vascular catheters, smooth and rough. N Engl J Med 287:1100-1101, 1972.
80. Mortensson W, T Hallbook, N Lundstrom: Percutaneous catheterization of the femoral vessels in children. II. Thrombotic occlusion of the catheterized artery: Frequency and causes. Pediatr Radiol 4:1-9, 1975.
81. Mortensson W: Angiography of the femoral artery following percutaneous catheterization in infants and children. Acta Radiol Diagn 17:581-593, 1976.
82. Freed M, J Keane, A Rosenthal: The use of heparinization to prevent arterial thrombosis after percutaneous cardiac catheterization in children. Circulation 50:565-569, 1974.
83. Vlad P, A Hohn, EC Lambert: Retrograde arterial catheterization of the left heart. Circulation 29:787, 1964.
84. Freed M, A Rosenthal, D Fyler: Attempts to reduce arterial thrombosis after cardiac catheterization in children: Use of percutaneous technique and aspirin. Am Heart J 87:283-286, 1974.
85. Burrows P, L Benson, W Williams, G Trusler, J Coles, J Smallhorn, R Freedom: Iliofemoral arterial complications of balloon angioplasty for systemic obstructions in infants and children. Circulation 82:1697-1704, 1990.
86. Padmanabhan J, LJ Krovetz, PJ Varghese, HD Mellits, RD Rowe: Effect of topical papaverine in preventing thrombosis following arteriotomies. A double blind study in infants and children. J Pediatr 81:792-793, 1977.
87. Ino T, LN Benson, RM Freedom, GA Barker, A Zipursky, RD Rowe: Thrombolytic therapy for femoral artery thrombosis after pediatric cardiac catheterization. Am Heart J 115:633-639, 1988.
88. Mansfield PB, AB Gozzaniga, SB Litwin: Management of arterial injuries related to cardiac catheterization in children and young adults. Circulation 42:501-507, 1970.
89. Kern IB: Management of children with chronic femoral artery obstruction. J Pediatr Surg 12:83-90, 1977.
90. Zahn E, V Lima, L Benson, R Freedom: Use of endovascular stents to increase pulmonary blood flow in pulmonary atresia with ventricular septal defect. Am J Cardiol 70:411-412, 1992.
91. Peeters S, Y Vandenplas, K Jochmans, A Bougatef, M De Waele, D De Wolf: Myocardial infarction in a neonate with hereditary antithrombin III deficiency. Acta Paediatr 82:610-613, 1993.
92. Hong C, Y Yun, J Choi, J Sul, K Lee, S Cha, Y Hong, H Lee, Y Hong, K Sohn: Takayasu arteritis in Korean children: Clinical report of seventy cases. Heart Vessels 7:91-96, 1992.
93. Zheng D, D Fan, L Liu: Takayasu arteritis in China: A report of 530 cases. Heart Vessels 7:32-36, 1992.
94. Wiggelinkhuizen J, B Cremin, S Cywes: Spontaneous recanalization of renal artery stenosis in childhood Takayasu arteritis: A case report. S Afr Med J 57:96-98, 1980.
95. Koren G, V Rose, S Lavi, R Rowe: Probable efficacy of high-dose salicylates in reducing coronary involvement in Kawasaki disease. JAMA 254:767-769, 1985.
96. Daniels S, P Specker, TE Capannari, D Schwartz, M Burke, S Kaplan: Correlates of coronary artery aneurysm formation in patients with Kawasaki disease. Am J Dis Child 141:205-207, 1987.
97. Newburger J, M Takahashi, J Burns, A Beiser, K Chung, C Duffy, M Glode, W Mason, V Reddy, S Sanders: The treatment of Kawasaki syndrome with intravenous gamma globulin. N Engl J Med 315:341-347, 1986.
98. Taussig H: Long-time observations on the Blalock-Taussig operation. IX. Single ventricle (with apex to the left). Johns Hopkins Med J 139:69-76, 1976.
99. Truccone N, FJ Bowman, J Malm, W Gersony: Systemic-pulmonary arterial shunts in the first year of life. Circulation 49: 508-511, 1974.
100. Tamisier D, P Vouhe, F Vernant, F Leca, C Massot, J Neveux: Modified Blalock-Taussig shunts: Results in infants less than 3 months of age. Ann Thorac Surg 49:797-801, 1990.
101. Bjork V, C Olin, B Bjarke, C Thoren: Right atrial-right ventricular anastomosis for correction of tricuspid atresia. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 77:452-458, 1979.
102. Breman FJ, J Malm, C Hayes, W Gersony: Physiological approach to surgery for tricuspid atresia. Circulation (suppl 1): 1-83, 1978.
103. Fontan F, E Baudet: Surgical repair of tricuspid atresia. Thorax 26:240-248, 1971.
104. Jonas R, A Castaneda: Modified Fontan procedure: Atrial baffle and systemic venous to pulmonary artery anastomotic techniques. J Cardiac Surg 3:91-96, 1988.
105. du Plessis A, A Chang, D Wessel, JK Lock, G Wernorsky, JW Newburger, JH Mayer Jr: Cerebrovascular accidents following the Fontan operation. Pediatr Neurol 12:230-236, 1995.
106. Prenger K: Porcine-valved dacron conduits in Fontan procedures. Ann Thorac Surg 46:526-530, 1988.
107. Jahangiri M, DB Ross, AN Redington, C Lincoln, EA Shinebourne: Thromboembolism after the Fontan procedure and its modifications. Ann Thorac Surg 58:1409-1414, 1994.
108. Turner-Gomes S, E Nitschmann, M Andrew: Additional heparin affects thrombin generation during cardiopulmonary bypass surgery for congenital heart disease. Thromb Haemostas 69: 1167 (Abst), 1993.
109. Andrew M, B MacIntyre, W Williams, C Gruenwald, M Johnston, F Burrows, E Wang, J MacMillan, M Adams: Heparin therapy during cardiopulinonary bypass requires ongoing quality control. Thromb Haemostas 70:937-941, 1993.
110. Horkay F, P Martin, S Rajah, D Walker: Response to heparinization in adults and children undergoing cardiac operations. Ann Thorac Surg 53:822-826, 1992.
111. Leaker M, MP Massicotte, L Brooker, M Andrew: Thrombolytic therapy in pediatric patients: A comprehensive review of the literature. Thromb Haemostas 76:132-134, 1996.
112. Chan A, M Leaker, F Burrows, W Williams, C Gruenwald, L White, M Adams, L Mitchell, M Andrew: Coagulation profile of paediatric patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass. Thromb Haemostas 1996, in press.
113. Montes de Oca MA, MC Babron, O Bletry, M Broyer, V Courtecuisse, JL Fontaine, C Loirat, JP Mery, P Reinert, B Wechsler: Thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: A French collaborative study. Arch Dis Child 66:713-717, 1991.
114. Reich D, K Zahl, M Perucho, D Thys: An evaluation of two activated clotting time monitors during cardiac surgery. J Clin Monitor 8:33-36, 1992.
115. Green D, J Scott: Is sickle cell crisis a thrombotic event? Am J Hematol 23:317-321, 1986.
116. Truog R: Randomized controlled trials: Lessons from ECMO. Clin Res 40:519-527, 1992.
117. Bartlett RH, DW Roloff, RG Cornell, AF Andrews, PW Dillon, JB Zwischenberger: Extracorporeal circulatory support in neonatal respiratory failure: A prospective randomized study. Pediatrics 76:749, 1985.
118. Andrew M, DG Nathan, FA Oski, (Eds): Hematology of Infancy and Childhood, 5th ed. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1996, vol 5.
119. Geary DF, M Gajaria, S Fryer-Keene, J Willumsen: Low-dose and heparin-free hemodialysis in children. Pediatr Nephrol 5:220-224, 1991.
120. Wessier S, S Reimer, M Sheps: Biological assay of a thrombosis inducing activity in human serum. J Appl Physiol 14:943-946, 1959.
121. Borm J, R Krediet, A Sturk, J ten Cate: Heparin versus low molecular weight heparin K2165 in chronic hemodialysis patients: A randomized cross-over study. Haemostasis 16:59-68, 1986.
122. Lane D, A Flynn, H Ireland E Anastassiades, JR Curtis: On the evaluation of heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin in hemodialysis for chronic renal failure. Haemostasis 16(suppl 2): 38-47 (Abst), 1986.
123. Muir JM, M Andrew, J Hirsh, JI Weitz, E Young, P Deschamps, SG Shaughnessy: Histomorphometric analysis of the effects of standard heparin on trabecular bone in vivo. Blood 88:1314-1320, 1996.
124. Andrew M, M David, M Adams, K Ali, R Anderson, D Barnard, M Berstein, L Brisson, B Cairney, D DeSai: Venous thromboembolic complications (VTE) in children: First analyses of the Canadian Registry of VTE. Blood 83:1251-1257, 1994.
125. Einhaupl KM, A Villringer, W Meister, S Mehraein, C Garner, M Pellkofer, RL Haberl, HW Pfister, P Schmiedek: Heparin treatment in sinus venous thrombosis. Lancet 338:597-600, 1991.
126. Kay R, K Sing Wong, Y Ling Yu: Low molecular weight heparin for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 333:1588-1593, 1995.
127. Weibach G, M Domula, AH Sutor (Eds): Erfahrungen aus der pädiatrie. In: Thrombosen im Kindesalter. Editiones Roche, Basel, 1992, pp 235-248.
128. Andrew M, V Marzinotto, V Blanchette, J Ginsberg, P Burrows, L Benson, W Williams, M David, A Poon, C Sparling: Heparin therapy in pediatric patients: A prospective cohort study. Pediatr Res 35:78-83, 1994.
129. Schmidt B, M Andrew: Report of scientific and standardization subcommittee on neonatal hemostasis diagnosis and treatment of neonatal thrombosis. Thromb Haemostas 67:381-382, 1992.
130. Raschke R, B Reilly, J Guidry JR Fontana, S Srinivas: The weight-based heparin dosing nomogram compared with a "standard care" nomogram. Ann Intern Med 119:874-881, 1993.
131. Sutor AH, G Webach, R Schreiber, HD Bruhn, E Seifried: Thrombosen im Kindesalter, Hämostaseologie (Germany) 12: 82-93, 1992.
132. Gallus A, J Jackaman, J Tillett, W Mills, A Wycherley: Safety and efficacy of warfarin started early after submassive venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Lancet 2:1293-1296, 1986.
133. Hull R, G Raskob, D Rosenbloom: Heparin for 5 days as compared with 10 days in the initial treatment of proximal venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med 322:1260-1264, 1990.
134. Holmgren K, G Andersson, B Fagrell, H Johnsson, B Ljungberg, E Nilsson, S Wilhelmsson, S Zetterquist: One-month versus six-month therapy with oral anticoagulants after symptomatic deep vein thrombosis. Acta Med Scand 218:279-284, 1985.
135. Cruickshank M, M Levine, J Hirsh, R Roberts, M Siguenza: A standard heparin nomogram for the management of heparin therapy. Arch Intern Med 151:333-337, 1991.
136. Elliot G, S Hiltunen, M Suchyta GE Raskob, GF Pineo, S Yeates, N Kitterman: Physician-guided treatment compared with a heparin protocol for deep vein thrombosis. Arch Intern Med 154:999-1004, 1994.
137. Popov-Cenic S: The use of drugs in thrombosis prevention. Med Klin 71:1221-1234, 1976.
138. Malloy MH, FR Cutter: The association of heparin exposure with intraventricular hemorrhage among very low birth weight infants. J Perinatol 15:185-191, 1995.
139. Hambleton G, W Appleyard: Controlled trial of fresh frozen plasma in asphyxiated low birthweight infants. Arch Dis Child 48:31-35, 1973.
140. Hara T, J Kukita, H Yamashita Y Mizuno, K Ueda, H Shimokawa, H Nakano, K Kishida: Intravenous gammaglobulin for prolonged passive immune thrombocytopenia. Acta Paediatr Jpn 30:627-631, 1988.
141. Hanada H, I Ono: A neonate with passive ITP effectively treated with high-dose intravenous gammaglobulin. Rinsho Ketsueki 27:808, 1985.
142. Hanada T, T Abe, H Takita: Antithrombin III concentrates for treatment of disseminated intravascular coagulation in children. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 7:3-8, 1985.
143. Barbour LA, SD Kick, JF Steiner, ME LoVerde, LN Heddleson, JL Lear, AE Baron, PL Barton: A prospective study of heparin-induced osteoporosis in pregnancy using bone densitometry. Am J Obstet Gynecol 170:862-869, 1994.
144. Robin: Studies on osteoporosis X. Effect of estrogen-progestin combination on heparin induced osteoporosis. Steriods 42: 669-675, 1983.
145. Avioli L: Heparin induced osteoporosis: An appraisal. Adv Exp Med Biol 52:375-387, 1975.
146. Ambrus L: Studies on osteoporosis. I. Experimental models. Effect of age, sex, genetic background, diet, steroids, and heparin treatment on calcium metabolism of mice. Chem Pathol Pharmacol 22:3-14, 1978.
147. Dahlman T, N Lindvall, M Hellgren: Osteopenia in pregnancy during longterm heparin treatment: A radiological study post partum. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 97:221-228, 1990.
148. De Sweit M, PD Ward, J Fidler, A Horsman, D Katz, E Letsky, M Peacock, PH Wise: Prolonged heparin therapy in pregnancy causes bone demineralization. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 90:1129-1134, 1983.
149. Ginsberg J, G Kowalchuk, J Hirsh, P Brill-Edwards, R Burrows, G Coztes, C Webber: Heparin effect on bone density. Thromb Haemostas 4:286-289, 1990.
150. Griffith GC, G Nichols, JD Asher, B Flanagan: Heparin osteoporosis. JAMA 193:85, 1965.
151. Dahlman TC: Osteoporotic fractures and the recurrence of thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium in 184 women undergoing thromboprophylaxis with heparin. Am J Obstet Gynecol 168:1265-1270, 1993.
152. Dahlman TC, HE Sjoberg, H Ringertz: Bone mineral density during long-term prophylaxis with heparin in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 170:1315-1320, 1994.
153. Douketis JD, JS Ginsberg, RF Burrows, EK Duku, CE Webber, P Brill-Edwards: The effects of longterm heparin therapy during pregnancy on bone density. Thromb Haemostas 75:254-257, 1996.
154. Zimran A, S Shilo, D Fisher, I Bab: Histomorphometric evaluation of reversible heparin-induced osteoporosis in pregnancy. Arch Intern Med 146:386, 1986.
155. Murphy M: Heparin therapy and bone fractures. Lancet 340: 1098, 1992.
156. Sackler JP: Heparin induced osteoporosis. Br J Radiol 46:548-550, 1973.
157. Schuster J: Pathology of osteopathy following heparin therapy. J Pediatr Surg 20:410, 1969.
158. Melissari E, CJ Parker, NV Wilson, G Monte, C Kanthou, KD Pemberton, KH Nicolaides, JJ Barrett, VV Kakkar: Use of low molecular weight heparin in pregnancy. Thromb Haemostas 68:652-656, 1992.
159. Monreal M, A Olive, E Lafoz: Heparins, coumarin and bone density. Lancet 338:706, 1992.
160. Shefras J, RG Farquharson: Bone density studies in pregnant women receiving heparin. Obstet Gynecol 65:171-174, 1996.
161. Monreal M, E Lafoz, A Olive, L del Rio, C Vedia: Comparison of subcutaneous unfractionated heparin with a low molecular weight heparin (Fragmin) in patients with venous thromboembolism and contraindications to coumarin. Thromb Haemostas 71:7-11, 1994.
162. Laster J: The heparin induced thrombocytopenia syndrome: An update. Surgery 102:763-770, 1987.
163. Bontempo FA, JH Lewis, DH Van Thiel, JA Spero, MV Ragni, P Butler, L Israel, TE Starzl: The relation of preoperative coagulation findings to diagnosis, blood usage, and survival in adult liver transplantation. Transplantation 39:532, 1985.
164. Kelton J, D Sheridan, A Santos, J Smith, K Steeves, C Smith, C Brown, WG Murphy: Heparin-associated thrombocytopenia: Laboratory studies. Blood 72:925-930, 1988.
165. Kelton J: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Haemostasis 16:173-186, 1986.
166. Spadone D: Heparin induced thrombocytopenia in the newborn. J Vasc Surg 15:306-312, 1996.
167. Wilhelm M: Cardiopulmonary bypass in patients with heparin induced thrombocytopenia using Organon 10172. Ann Thorac Surg 61:920-924, 1996.
168. Potter C: Heparin induced thrombocytopenia in a child. J Pediatr 121:135-138, 1992.
169. Klement D: Heparin as a cause of thrombus progression. Eur J Pediatr 155:11-14, 1996.
170. Murdoch IA: Heparin induced thrombocytopenia in children. Acta Paediatr 82:495-497, 1993.
171. Sheridan D, C Carter, J Kelton: A diagnostic test for heparin-incluced thrombocytopenia. 67:27-30, 1986.
172. Blockmans D: Heparin induced thrombocytopenia platelet aggregation studies in the presence of heparin fractions or semi synthetic analogues of various molecular weights and anticoagulant activities. Thromb Haemostas 55:90-93, 1986.
173. White P, J Sadd, R Nensel: Thrombotic complications of heparin therapy including six cases of heparin-induced skin necrosis. Ann Surg 190:595-608, 1979.
174. Jaques LB: Heparins - anionic polyelectrolyte drugs. Pharmacol Rev 31:99-166, 1980.
175. Curry N, EJ Bandana: Heparin sensitivity: Report of a case. Arch Intern Med 132:744-745, 1973.
176. O'Kelly R, F Magee, J McKenna: Routine heparin therapy inhibits adrenal aldosterone production. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 56:108-112, 1973.
177. Castaman G, F Rodeghiero, E Dini: Thrombotic complications during L-asparaginase treatment for acute lymphocytic leukemia. Haematologica 75:567-569, 1990.
178. Prandoni P, A Lensing, H Büller, M Carta, A Cogo, M Vigo, D Casara, A Ruol, J ten Cate: A comparison of subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin with intravenous standard heparin in proximal deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet 339:441-145, 1992.
179. Hull R, G Raskob, G Pineo, D Green, A Trowbridge, C Elliott, LG Lerner, J Hall, T Sparling, HR Brettel: Subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin compared with continuous intravenous heparin in the treatment of proximal-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 326:975-982, 1992.
180. Hirsh J, M Levine: Low molecular weight heparin. Blood 79: 1-17, 1992.
181. Simmoneau G, B Charbonnier, H Decousus, B Planchon, J Ninet, P Sie, M Silsiguen, S Combe: Subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin compared with continuous intravenous unfractionated heparin in the treatment of proximal deep vein thrombosis. Arch Intern Med 153:1541-1546, 1993.
182. Andrew M, F Ofosu, L Brooker, M Buchanan: The comparison of the pharmacokinetics of a low molecular heparin in the newborn and adult pig. Thromb Res 56:529-539, 1989.
183. Linker A, P Hovingh: Isolation and characterization of oligosaccharides obtained from heparin by the action of heparinase. Biochemistry 11:563-567, 1972.
184. Hopwood J, M Hook, A Linker, U Lindahl: Anticoagulant activity of heparin: Isolation of antithrombin-binding sites. FEBS Lett 69:51-54, 1976.
185. Lane D, I MacGregor, R Ivan, G Cella, V Kakkar: Molecular weight dependence of the anticoagulant properties of heparin. Intravenous and subcutaneous administration of fractionated heparins to man. Thromb Res 16:651-662, 1979.
186. Johnson E, T Kirkwood, Y Stirling, J Perez-Requejo, G Ingram, D Bangham, M Brozovic: Four heparin preparations: Anti-Xa potentiating effects of heparin after subcutaneous injection. Thromb Haemostas 35:586-591, 1976.
187. Bergqvist D, U Hedner, E Sjorin, E Holmer: Anticoagulant effects of two types of low molecular weight heparin administered subcutaneously. Thromb Res 32:381-391, 1983.
188. Palm M, C Mattsson: Pharmacokinetics of Fragmin. A comparative study in the rabbit of its high and low affinity forms for antithrombin. Thromb Res 48:51-62, 1987.
189. Holmer E, C Mattson, S Nilsson: Anticoagulant and antithrombotic effects of heparin and low molecular weight heparin fragments in rabbits. Thromb Res 25:475-485, 1982.
190. Thomas DP, RE Merton, WE Lewis, TW Barrowcliffe: Studies in man and experimental animals of a low molecular weight heparin fraction. Thromb Haemostas 45:214-218, 1981.
191. Carter C, J Kelton, J Hirsh, A Cerksus, A Santos, M Gent: The relationship between the hemorrhagic and antithrombotic properties of a low molecular weight heparin in rabbits. Blood 59:1239-1245, 1982.
192. Andriuoli G, R Mastacchi, M Barbanti, M Sarret: Comparison of the antithrombotic and haemorrhagic effects of heparin and a new low molecular weight heparin in rats. Haemostasis 15: 324-330, 1985.
193. Barrowcliffe T, E Johnson, C Eggleton, C Kemball-Cook, D Thomas: Anticoagulant activities of high and low molecular weight heparin fractions. Br J Haematol 41:573, 1979.
194. Leclerc J, L Desjardins, W Geerts, F Jobin, F Delorme, J Bourgouin: A randomized trial of enoxaparin for the prevention of deep vein thrombosis after major knee surgery. Thromb Haemostas 65(suppl):753, 1991.
195. Hartl P, P Brucke, K Dienstl, H Vinazzer: Prophylaxis of thromboembolism in general surgery: Comparison between standard heparin and Fragmin. Thromb Res 57:577-584, 1990.
196. Fricker J, Y Vergnes, R Schach A Heitz, M Eber, L Grunebaum, ML Wiesel, A Kher, P Barbier, JP Cazenave: Low dose heparin versus low molecular weight heparin (Kabi 2165, Fragmin) in the prophylaxis of thromboembolic complications of abdominal oncological surgery. Eur J Clin Invest 18:561-567, 1988.
197. Liezorovicz A, H Picolet, J Peyrieux, J Boirssel: Prevention of perioperative deep vein thrombosis in general surgery: A multicentre double-blind study comparing two doses of logiparin and standard heparin. Br J Surg 78:412-416, 1991.
198. Samama M, P Bernard, J Bonnardot, S Combe-Tamzali, E Tissot: Low molecular weight heparin compared with unfractionated heparin in prevention of postoperative thrombosis. Br J Surg 75:128-131, 1988.
199. Turpie A, M Levine, P Powers: A double-blind randomized-trial of ORG 10172 low molecular weight heparinoid versus unfractionated heparin in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis in patients with thrombotic stroke. Thromb Haemostas 65(suppl): 753, 1991.
200. Green D, M Lee, A Lim, JS Chimel, M Vetter, J Pang, D Chaen, L Fenton, GM Yarkony, PR Meyer Jr: Prevention of thromboembolism after spinal cord injury using low molecular weight heparin. Ann Intern Med 113:571-574, 1990.
201. Planes A, N Vochelle, F Mazas: Prevention of postoperative venous thrombosis: A randomized trial comparing unfractionated heparin with low molecular weight heparin in patients undergoing total hip replacement. Thromh Haemostas 60:407-410, 1988.
202. Levine M, J Hirsh, M Gent, AG Turpie, J LEclerc, PJ Powers, RM Jay, J Weemeh: Prevention of deep vein thrombosis alter elective hip surgery: A randomized trial comparing low molecular weight heparin with standard unfractionated heparin. Ann Intern Med 114:545-551, 1991.
203. Bratt G, E Tornebohm, S Granqvist, W Aberg, D Lockner: A comparison between low molecular weight heparin Kabi 2165 and standard heparin in the intravenous treatment of deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemostas 85:813-817, 1985.
204. Holm H, B Ly, G Handeland, U Abildgard, K Arnesen, P Gottschalk, V Hoeg, M Aandahl, K Haugen, F Laerum: Subcutaneous heparin treatment of deep vein thrombosis: A comparison of unfractionated and low molecular weight heparin. Haemostasis 16(suppl 2):30-37, 1986.
205. Faivre R, K Neuhart, Y Kieffer, F Toulemonde, J Bassand, J Maurat: Subcutaneous administration of a low molecular weight heparin (CY 222) compared with subcutaneous administration of standard heparin in patients with acute deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemostas 58(suppl):430, 1987.
206. Bratt G, W Aberg, M Johansson, E Tornebohm, S Granqvist, D Lockner: Two daily subcutaneous injections of Fragmin as compared with intravenous standard heparin in the treatment of deep venous thrombosis. Thromb Haemostas 64:506-510, 1990.
207. Duroux P, J Ninet, P Bachet: A randomized trial of subcutaneous low molecular weight heparin (CY 216) compared with intravenous unfractionated heparin in the treatment of deep vein thrombosis. A collaborative European multicentre study. Thromb Haemostas 65:251-256, 1991.
208. Lopaciuk S, A Meissner, S Filipecki, K Zawilska, J Sowier, L Cielielski, M Bielawiec, S Glowinski, E Czestochowska: Subcutaneous low molecular weight heparin versus subcutaneous unfractionated heparin in the treatment of deep vein thrombosis: A Polish multicenter trial. Thromb Haemostas 68:14-18, 1992.
209. Simonneau G, B Charbonnier, H Decousus, B Planchon, A Franco, J Ninet, P Sie, M Silsiguen, S Combe: Subcutaneous low molecular weight heparin compared with continuous intravenous unfractionated heparin in the treatment of proximal deep vein thrombosis. Arch Intern Med 153:1541-1546, 1993.
210. Turpie A, M Levine, J Hirsh, C Carter, R Jay, P Powers, M Andrew, R Hull, M Gent: A randomized controlled trial of PK10169 low molecular weight heparin for the prevention of deep vein thrombosis in patients undergoing elective hip surgery. N Engl J Med 315:925-929, 1986.
211. Turpie A, M Levine, J Hirsh, C Carter, R Jay, P Powers, M Andrew, H Magnani, R Hull, M Gent: A double-blind randomized trial of ORG 10172 low molecular weight heparinoid in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis in patients with thrombotic stroke. Lancet 1:523-526, 1987.
212. Hull R, G Pineo: Therapeutic use of low molecular weight heparins: The knowledge to date as applied to therapy. Semin Thromb Haemostas 19(suppl 1):111-115, 1993.
213. Hull R, G Raskob, G Pineo: A randomized double-blind trial of low molecular weight heparin in the initial treatment of proximal vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemostas 65(suppl I):872, 1991.
214. Barzu T, JLML van Rijn, M Petitou, G Tobelem, JP Caen: Heparin degradation in the endothelial cells. Thromb Res 47:601-609, 1987.
215. Mahadoo J, L Heibert, L Jaques: Vascular sequestration of heparin. Thromb Res 12:79-90, 1977.
216. R) in six children on chronic hemodialysis. Thromb Haemostas 69, 1993.
217. Mussicotte P, M Adams, V Marzinotto, L Brooker, M Andrew: Low molecular weight heparin in pediatric patients with thrombotic disease: A dose finding study. J Pediatr 128:313-318, 1996.
218. Andrew M, J Halton, M Massicotte: Treatment of homozygous protein C deficiency in two children with low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) therapy. Thromb Haemostas 73:939 (Abst). 1995.
219. Michelson AD, E Bovill, M Andrew: Antithrombotic therapy in children. Chest 108:506S-522S, 1995.