Prostate cancer

Current Opinion in Oncology

Volumn 9, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 277-286

  Small, Eric J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANDROGEN; ANTIANDROGEN; BICALUTAMIDE; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; DOXORUBICIN; ESTRAMUSTINE; ETOPOSIDE; FLUTAMIDE; GONADORELIN; MITOXANTRONE; NAVELBINE; PACLITAXEL; PREDNISONE; PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; SURAMIN; VINBLASTINE;

ADRENAL CORTEX INSUFFICIENCY; BRACHYTHERAPY; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CANCER GENETICS; CANCER RECURRENCE; CANCER SCREENING; CANCER SURGERY; CLINICAL TRIAL; CRYOSURGERY; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; HUMAN; MALE; MULTIMODALITY CANCER THERAPY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTATE CANCER; PROSTATECTOMY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT;

EID: 0030758109     PISSN: 10408746     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00001622-199709030-00011     Document Type: Review

References (91)

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28. Effert P, Bares R, Handt S, Wolff JM, Bull U, Jakse G: Metabolic imaging of untreated prostate cancer by positron emission tomography with 18fluorine-labeled deoxyglucose. J Urol 1996, 155:994-998.
29. Partin A, Piantadosi S, Sanda MG, Epstein JI, Marshall FF, Mohler JL, Brendler CB, Walsh PC, Simons JW: Selection of men at high risk for disease recurrence for experimental adjuvant therapy following radical prostatectomy. Urology 1995, 45:831-838.
30. Chen A, Roach M, Diaz A, Marquez C, Chinn D, Coleman L, Presti J, Carroll P: Using pre-treatment PSA and Gleason score to predict for extracapsular extension among patients with clinically staged, organ confined prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1995, 32(suppl 1):1020-1021. Describes a risk assessment schemas (formulas) used to predict final pathologic diagnosis. Along with nomograms (Partin's tables), this approach provides a useful framework for counseling patients about treatment options.
31. Narayan P, Gajendran V, Taylor SP, Tewari A, Presti JC Jr, Lo R, Palmer K, Shinohara K, Spaulding JT: The role of transrectal ultrasound-guided biopsy-based staging, preoperative serum prostate-specific antigen, and biopsy Gleason score in prediction of final pathologic diagnosis in prostate cancer. Urol 1995, 46:205-212. Describes risk assessment schemas used to predict final pathologic diagnosis based on biopsy results.
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33. Lerner S, Jacobsen SJ, Lilja H, Bergstralh EJ, Ransom J, Klee GG, Piironen T, Blute ML, Lieber MM. Zincke H: Free, complexed, and total serum prostate-specific antigen concentrations and their proportions in predicting stage, grade, and deoxyribonucleic acid ploidy in patients with adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Urol 1996, 48:240-248.
34. Olsson CA, deVries GM, Raffo AJ, Benson MC, O'Toole K, Cao. Y, Buttyan RE, Katz AE: Preoperative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction for prostate specific antigen predicts treatment failure following radical prostatectomy. J Urol 1996. 155:1661-1662. This study evaluated 100 radical prostatectomy candidates with rt-PCR for PSA, and showed that rt-PCR positivity was a statistically significant predictor of treatment failure after prostatectomy.
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36. Eschwege P, Dumas F, Blanchet P, LeMaire V, Benoit G, Jardin A, Lacour B, Loric S: Haematogenous dissemination of prostatic epithelial cells during radical prostatectomy. Lancet 1995, 346:1528-1530.
37. Oefelein M, Kaul K, Herz B, Blum MD, Holland JM, Keeler TC, Cook WA, Ignatoff JM: Molecular detection of prostate epithelial cells from the surgical field and peripheral circulation during radical prostatectomy. J Urol 1996, 155:238-242.
38. Aus G, Hugosson J, Norlen L: Long-term survival and mortality in prostate cancer treated with noncurative intent. J Urol 1995, 154:460-465.
39. Hugosson J, Aus G, Bergdahl C, Bergdahl S: Prostate cancer mortality in patients surviving more than 10 years after diagnosis. J Urol 1995, 154:2115-2117. This study reported on 490 men in the Swedish Cancer Registry who survived at least 10 years after the diagnosis of prostate cancer. At 15 years follow up these patients experienced a relatively low cause-specific survival rate of 55%. suggesting a relationship of follow-up period to risk.
40. Dillioglugil O, Leibman BD, Kattan MW, Scardino PT: Comparative long-term outcomes after various management strategies for T1-2 prostate cancer: a hazard rate (HR) analysis [abstract]. Proc Am Uro Assn 1996, 558.
41. Chodak G, Thisted RA: Comparison of cancer specific survival (CSS) following radical prostatectomy (RP) or watchful waiting (WW) based on two multi-institutional pooled analyses [abstract]. Proc Am Uro Assn 1996, 559.
42. Yao S, Lu-Yao G: Survival following curative or conservative management in patients diagnosed with clinically localized prostate cancer [abstract]. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 1996, 15:253.
43. Smitt MC, Heltzel M: The results of radical prostatectomy at a community hospital during the prostate specific antigen era. Cancer 1996, 77:928-933 This study reported results of radical prostatectomy at a community hospital and suggests comparable freedom from PSA relapse rates as those reported from academic medical centers.
44. Oefelein M, Grayhack JT, McVary KT: Survival after radical retropubic prostatectomy of men with clinically localized high-grade carcinoma of the prostate. Cancer 1995, 76:2535-2542.
45. Smith R, Partin AW, Epstein JI, Brendler CB: Extended follow-up of the influence of wide excision of the neurovascular bundle(s) on prognosis in men with clinically localized prostate cancer and extensive capsular perforation. J Urol 1996, 156:459.
46. Soloway M, Sharifi R, Wajsman Z, McLeod D, Wood DP Jr, Puras-Baez A: Randomized prospective study comparing radical prostatectomy alone versus radical prostatectomy preceded by androgen blockade in clinical stage B2 (T2bNxMO) prostate cancer. J Urol 1995, 154:424-428. This is a sentinel study of neoadjuvant androgen deprivation prior to radical prostatectomy, in which patients treated with hormones before prostatectomy have significantly lower rates of capsule penetration and positive surgical margins. Impact on survival is not yet known.
47. Geary E, Dendinger TE, Freiha FS, Stamey TA: Nerve sparing radical prostatectomy: a different view. J Urol 1995, 154:145-149.
48. Fowler F Jr, Barry MJ, Lu-Yao G, Wasson J, Wennberg J: Effect of radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer on patient quality of life: results from a Medicare survey. Urology 1995, 45:1007-1013.
49. Lim A, Brandon AH, Fiedler J, Brickman AL, Boyer CI, Raub WA Jr, Soloway MS: Quality of life: radical prostatectomy versus radiation therapy for prostate cancer. J Urol 1995, 154:1420-1425.
50. Helgason A, Adolfson J, Dickman P, Fredrikson M, Arver S, Steineck G: Waning sexual function: the most important disease-specific distress for patients with prostate cancer. Br J Cancer 1990, 73:1418-1421. This study confirms many investigators' clinical impressions that diminished sexual function is the single, most important disease-specific distress for patients with prostate cancer.
51. Roach M: Neoadjuvant total androgen suppression and radiotherapy in the management of locally advanced prostate cancer. Semin Uro Oncol 1996, 14:32-38.
52. Hanks G, Hanlon AL, Hudes G, Lee WR, Suasin W, Schultheiss TE: Patterns-of-failure analysis of patients with high pretreatment prostate-specific antigen levels treated by radiation therapy: the need for improved systemic and locoregional treatment. J Clin Oncol 1996, 14:1093-1097.
53. Pilepich M, Krall JM, Al-Sarraf M, John MJ, Doggett RL, Sause WT, Lawton CA, Barams RA, Rotman M, Rubin P: Androgen deprivation with radiation therapy compared with radiation therapy alone for locally advanced prostatic carcinoma: a randomized comparative trial of the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group. Urology 1995, 45:616-623. This is one of several studies suggesting a synergism between androgen deprivation and concurrent radiotherapy, as manifested by a decreased risk of local failure.
54. Bolla M, Gonzalez D, Warde P, Dubois JB, Mirimanoff R, Storme G, Bernier J, Kuten A, Sternberg C, Mattelaer J: Immediate hormonal therapy improves locoregional control and survival in patients with locally advanced prostate cancer [abstract]. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 1996, 15:238. This abstract from the EORTC indicated an overall survival advantage associated with the use of neoadjuvant androgen deprivation in conjunction with radiotherapy in patients with high-grade or locally advanced prostate cancer. This is the first report from a randomized study suggesting a survival advantage to androgen deprivation in this setting.
55. Laverdiere J, Gomez JL, Cusan L, Suburu ER, Diamond P, Lemay M, Candas B, Labrie F: Beneficial effect of combination therapy administered prior and following external beam radiation therapy in localized prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Bio Phys 1995, 32:189.
56. Roach M, Meehan S, Weil M, Ryu J, Small EJ. et al.: Radiotherapy (XRT) for high-grade (HG) clinically localized adenocarcinoma of the prostate (CAP). Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 1996, 15. This study suggests that the use of high-dose conformal radiotherapy appears to be able to overcome some of the adverse effects of high Gleason score, as measured by time to PSA progression.
57. Stock R, Stolne NN, DeWyngaert JK, Lavagnin P, Linger PD: Prostate specific antigen findings and biopsy results following interactive ultrasound guided transperineal brachytherapy for early stage prostate carcinoma. Cancer 1996, 77:2386-2392.
58. Critz F, Levinson AK, Williams WH, Holladay DA: Prostate-specific antigen nadir: the optimum level after irradiation for prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 1996, 14:2893-2900. In this retrospective study of 536 patients treated with brachytherapy followed by external beam radiation, the authors attempted to identify the desired PSA nadir necessary to declare a patient cured (< 0.5 ng/mL). Perhaps more importantly, they presented a large series of patients treated in a more or less similar fashion. Overall PSA failure rate was low at 20%. This study is hampered by its retrospective nature as well as lack of appropriate statistical methodology.
59. Wallner K. Roy J, Harrison L: Tumor control and morbidity following transperineal iodine 125 implantation for stage T1/T2 prostatic carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 1996, 14:449-453.
60. D'Amico A, Coleman CN: Role of interstitial radiotherapy in the management of clinically organ-confined prostate cancer: the jury is still out. J Clin Oncol 1996, 14:304-315.
61. Lee W, Hanlon AL. Hanks GE: Prostate specific antigen nadir following external beam radiation therapy for clinically localized prostate cancer: the relationship between nadir level and disease-free survival. J Urol 1996, 156:450-453. This study of 364 men with localized prostate cancer treated with external beam radiation therapy showed that PSA nadir after radiation therapy is an indicator of subsequent biochemical disease-free survival, and that patients with a nadir greater than 1 ng/mL have a high subsequent failure rate. As with Critz et al. (J Clin Oncol 1996. 14:2893-2900), its retrospective nature and statistical problems limit its utility.
62. Lee W, Hanlon AL. Hanks GE: Prostate specific antigen nadir following external beam radiation therapy for clinically localized prostate cancer: the relationship between nadir level and disease-free survival. J Urol 1996, 156:450-453. This study of 364 men with localized prostate cancer treated with external beam radiation therapy showed that PSA nadir after radiation therapy is an indicator of subsequent biochemical disease-free survival, and that patients with a nadir greater than 1 ng/mL have a high subsequent failure rate. As with Critz et al. (J Clin Oncol 1996. 14:2893-2900), its retrospective nature and statistical problems limit its utility.
63. McLaughlin P, Sandler HM, Juroutek MR: Prostate-specific antigen following prostate radiotherapy: how low can you go? J Clin Oncol 1996, 14:2889-2892.
64. Shinohara K, Connolly JA, Presti JC Jr, Carroll P: Cryosurgical treatment of localized prostate cancer (stages T1 to T4): preliminary results. J Urol 1996. 156:115-121.
65. Lu-Yao G, Potosky AL, Albertsen PC, Wasson JH, Barry MJ, Wennberg JE: Follow-up prostate cancer treatments after radical prostatectomy: a population-based study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996. 88:166-173. This report on SEER population-based data reports that in 3000 patients studied, the 5-year cumulative incidence of having any additional cancer treatment after radical prostatectomy was 35%, suggesting that a large number of patients are not being cured with surgery alone.
66. Petrovich Z, Lieskovsky G, Freeman J, Luxton G, Groshen S, Formenti S, Baert L, Chen S-C, Skinner DG: Surgery with adjuvant irradiation in patients with pathologic stage C adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Cancer 1995, 76:1621-1628. This nonrandomized study of patients with pathologic T3 carcinoma of the prostate suggests that although adjuvant radiation may improve local control, it has no apparent impact on overall survival. A randomized trial is underway.
67. Syndikus I, Pickles T, Kostashuk E, Sullivan LD: Postoperative radiotherapy for stage pT3 carcinoma of the prostate: improved local control. J Urol 1996, 155:1983-1986.
68. Cher M, Stephenson RA, James BC, Carroll PR: Cellular proliferative fraction of metastatic lymph nodes predicts survival in stage D1 (TxN+MO) prostate cancer. J Urol 1996, 155:1678-1680.
69. Fowler J, Pandey P. Seaver L, Feliz T: Prostate specific antigen after gonadal androgen withdrawal and deferred flutamide treatment. J Urol 1995, 154:448-453.
70. Prostate Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group: Maximum androgen blockade in advanced prostate cancer: an overview of 22 randomized trials with 3283 deaths in 5710 patients. Lancet 1995, 346:265-269. This is a report of a meta-analysis comparing combined androgen blockade versus gonadal androgen deprivation alone, in which 22 randomized trials and 5710 patients are reviewed. Although there was a trend for survival benefit with combined androgen blockade, this did not reach statistical significance, Of note, another meta-analysis published in abstract form suggests a clear advantage to combined androgen blockade.
71. Schellhammer P, Sharifi R, Block N, Soloway M, Venner P, Patterson AL. Sarosdy M, Vogelzang N, Jones J, Kolvenbag G: A controlled trial of bicalutamide versus flutatmide, each in combination with luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone analogue therapy, in patients with advanced prostate cancer. Urology 1995, 45:745-752. This is a report of a randomized, double-blind trial comparing flutamide with bicalutamide in combination with an LHRH analog. While the time to treatment failure analysis suggests an advantage to bicalutamide. this analysis has been criticized, and mature survival data are not yet available.
72. Goldenberg S, Bruchovsky N, Gleave ME, Sullivan LD, Akakura K: Intermittent androgen suppression in the treatment of prostate cancer: a preliminary report. Urology 1995, 45:839-844.
73. Small E, Srinivas S: The antiandrogen withdrawal syndrome: experience in a large cohort of unselected advanced prostate cancer patients. Cancer 1995, 76:1428-1434. This study is the largest series of antiandrogen withdrawal reported. It confirms earlier results, suggesting that approximately 15% of patients will have a response to antiandrogen withdrawal It also reported for the first time that patients who had been initially treated by an LHRH analog or orchiectomy and did not have flutamide added until relapse were equally as likely to respond to flutamide withdrawal.
74. Figg WD, Sartor O, Cooper MR, Thibault A, Bergan RC. Dawson N. Reed E, Myers CE: Prostate specific antigen decline following discontinuation of flutamide in patients with stage 02 prostate cancer. Am J Med 1995, 98:412-414.
75. Herrada J, Dieringer P, Logothetis CJ: Characterization of patients with androgen-independent prostatic carcinoma whose serum prostate specific antigen decreased following flutamide withdrawal. J Urol 1996, 155:620-623.
76. Small E, Carroll PR: Prostate-specific antigen decline after Casodex withdrawal: evidence for an antiandrogen withdrawal syndrome. Urology 1994, 43:408-410.
77. Dawson NA, McLeod DG: Dramatic prostate specific antigen decrease in response to discontinuation of megestrol acetate in advanced prostate cancer: expansion of the anti-androgen withdrawal syndrome. J Urol 1995, 153:1946-1947.
78. Schellhammer P, Venner P, Haas GP. Small EJ, Nieh PT, Seabaugh DR, Patterson AL, Klein E, Wajsman Z, Furr B, Chen Y, Kolvenbag GJ: Prostate-specific antigen decreases after withdrawal of anti-androgen therapy with bicalutamide or flutamide in patients receiving combined androgen blockade. J Urol 1997, In press.
79. Taplin M, Bubley GJ, Shuster TD, Frantz ME, Spooner AE, Ogata GK, Keer HN, Balk SP: Mutation of androgen receptor gene in metastatic androgen-independent prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 1995, 332:1393-1398. This is the most comprehensive molecular characterization and comprehensive description to date of the nature and functional characteristics of mutations in the androgen receptor in patients with androgen independent prostate cancer.
80. Kelly W, Curley T, Leibertz C, Dnistnan A, Schwartz M, Scher HI: Prospective evaluation of hydrocortisone and suramin in patients with androgen-independent prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 1995, 13:2208-2213. This study is the first to document the efficacy of hydrocortisone in hormone refractory prostate cancer patients who had already undergone antiandrogen withdrawal. Approximately 20% of patients had a response, and subsequent response to suramin were few.
81. Small E, Baron A, Fippin L, Apodaca D: Ketoconazole retains activity in "hormone refractory" prostate cancer. J Urol 1997, 157.
82. Scher H, Steineck G, Kelly WK: Hormone-refractory (D3) prostate cancer: refining the concept. Urology 1995, 13:142-148.
83. Eisenberger MA, Nelson WG: How much can we rely on the level of prostate-specific antigen as an end point for evaluation of clinical trials? A word of caution! J Natl Cancer Inst 1996, 88:779-781. This editorial summarizes the pitfalls of using PSA as a surrogate endpoint in patients with hormone refractory prostate cancer.
84. Figg W, Ammerman K. Patronas N, Steinberg SM, Walls RG, Dawson N. Reed E, Sartor O: Lack of correlation between prostate-specific antigen and the presence of measurable soft tissue metastases in hormone refractory prostate cancer. Cancer Invest 1996, 14:513-517.
85. Hudes G, Nathan FE, Khater C, et al.: Paclitaxel plus estramustine in metastatic hormone refractory prostate cancer. Semin Oncol 1995, 22:41-45. This is a report of combination antimicrotubule agents (in this case, paclitaxel plus estramustine), Although the response proportion is encouraging, the concomitant use of high-dose steroids must be taken into account.
86. Kobayashi K, Vokes E, Vogelzang N: Phase I study of suramin given by intermittent infusion without adaptive control in patients with advanced cancer. J Clin Oncol 1995, 13:2196-2207. This paper outlines one of two commonly used suramin schedules The data from this phase-I trial has become the basis of an intergroup randomized phase-III trial comparing three doses of suramin.
87. Reyno LE. Egonn MJ, Eisenberger MA, Sinibaldi VJ. Zuhowski EG, Sridhara R: Development and validation of a pharmacokinetically based fixed dosing scheme for suramin. J Clin Oncol 1995, 13:2187-2195. This study reports on the second commonly used suramin schedule and suggests that some patients will experience a dramatic fall in PSA with some long-term survivors.
88. Rosen P, Mendoza EF, Landaw EM, Mondino B, Graves MC, McBride JH, Turcillo P, deKernion J, Belldegrun A: Suramin in hormone refractory metastatic prostate cancer: a drug with limited efficacy. J Clin Oncol 1996, 14:1626-1636.
89. Tannock I, Osoba D, Stocker MR, Ernst DS, Neville AJ, Moore MJ, Armitage GR, Wilson JJ, Venner PM, Coppin CM. Murphy KC: Chemotherapy with mitoxantrone plus prednisone or prednisone alone for symptomatic hormone resistant prostate cancer: a Canadian randomized trial with palliative end points. J Clin Oncol 1996. 14:1756-1764. This randomized study of mitoxantrone plus prednisone versus prednisone alone is the first study ever to document an advantage to chemotherapy in hormone refractory prostate cancer. The advantages observed were in pain control and duration of palliation, and not in survival.
90. Kantoff P, Conoway M. Winer E, Picus J, Vogelzang NJ: Hydrocortisone with or without mitoxantrone in patients with hormone refractory prostate cancer: preliminary results from a prospective randomized Cancer and Leukemia Group B study (9182). Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 1996, 15:25.
91. Small ES, Srinivas S, Egan B, McMillan A. Rearden TP: Doxorubicin and dose-escalated cyclophosphamide with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor for the treatment of hormone-resistant prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 1996, 14:1617-1625. The authors report the efficacy of doxorubicin plus dose-intenstfied cyclophosphamide in patients with hormone refractory prostate cancer. The response proportion seems comparable to that observed with other regimens in this setting. Although toxicity seemed reasonable, issues of cost-effectiveness remain.