Hepatitis C

Annals of Internal Medicine

Volumn 125, Issue 8, 1996, Pages 658-668

  Sharara, Ala I ^a   Hunt, Christine M ^a   Hamilton, John D ^a  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

INTERFERON;

HEPATITIS C; HUMAN; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; LIVER FAILURE; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; LIVER TUMOR; REVIEW; UNITED STATES; VIROLOGY;

CARCINOMA, HEPATOCELLULAR; HEPATITIS C; HUMANS; INTERFERONS; LIVER FAILURE; LIVER NEOPLASMS; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0030587847     PISSN: 00034819     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-125-8-199610150-00006     Document Type: Review

References (203)

1. Prince AM, Brotman B, Grady GF, Kuhns WJ, Hazzi C, Levine RW, et al. Long-incubation post-transfusion hepatitis without serological evidence of exposure to hepatitis-B virus. Lancet. 1974;2:241-6.
2. Feinstone SM, Kapikian AZ, Purcell RH, Alter HJ, Holland PV. Transfusion-associated hepatitis not due to viral hepatitis type A or B. N Engl J Med. 1975;292:767-70.
3. Choo QL, Kuo G, Weiner AJ, Overby LR, Bradley DW, Houghton M. Isolation of a cDNA clone derived from a blood-borne non-A, non-B viral hepatitis genome. Science. 1989;244:359-62.
4. Kuo G, Choo QL, Alter HJ, Gitnick GL, Redeker AG, Purcell RH, et al. An assay for circulating antibodies to a major etiologic virus of human non-A, non-B hepatitis. Science. 1989;244:362-4.
5. Alter HJ, Purcell RH, Shih JW, Melpolder JC, Houghton M, Choo QL, et al. Detection of antibody to hepatitis C virus in prospectively followed transfusion recipients with acute and chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:1494-500.
6. Aach RD, Stevens CE, Hollinger FB, Mosley JW, Peterson DA, Taylor PE, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in post-transfusion hepatitis. An analysis with first- and second-generation assays. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:1325-9.
7. Hopf U, Moller B, Kuther D, Stemerowicz R, Lobeck H, Ludtke-Handjery A, et al. Long-term follow up of posttransfusion and sporadic chronic hepatitis non-A, non-B and frequency of circulating antibodies to hepatitis C virus (HCV). J Hepatol. 1990;10:69-76.
8. Bruix J, Barrera JM, Calvet X, Ercilla G, Costa J, Sanchez-Tapias JM, et al. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in Spanish patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and hepatic cirrhosis. Lancet. 1989;2:1004-6.
9. Read AE, Donegan E, Lake J, Ferrell L, Galbraith C, Kuramoto IK, et al. Hepatitis C in patients undergoing liver transplantation. Ann Intern Med. 1991;114:282-4.
10. Resnick RH, Koff R. Hepatitis C-related hepatocellular carcinoma. Prevalence and significance. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:1672-7.
11. Kelen GD, Green GB, Purcell RH, Chan DW, Qaqish BF, Sivertson KT, et al. Hepatitis B and hepatitis C in emergency department patients. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:1399-404.
12. Alter MJ. Epidemiology of hepatitis C in the West. Semin Liver Dis. 1996; 15:5-14.
13. Houghton M, Weiner A, Han J, Kuo G, Choo QL. Molecular biology of the hepatitis C viruses: implications for diagnosis, development and control of viral disease. Hepatology. 1991;14:381-8.
14. Lin C, Lindenbach BD, Pragai BM, McCourt DW, Rice CM. Processing in the hepatitis C virus E2-NS2 region: identification of p7 and two distinct E2-specific products with different C termini. J Virol. 1994;68:5063-73.
15. Simmonds P, Holmes EC, Cha TA, Chan SW, McOmish F, Irvine B, et al. Classification of hepatitis C virus into six major genotypes and a series of subtypes by phylogenetic analysis of the NS-5 region. J Gen Virol. 1993;74: 2391-9.
16. Mizokami M, Ohba K, Gojobori T, Lau JY. At least 7 types and 16 subtypes of hepatitis C virus based on molecular evolutionary analysis [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1994;20:245A.
17. Simmonds P. Variability of hepatitis C virus. Hepatology. 1995;21:570-83.
18. Bukh J, Purcell RH, Miller RH. At least 12 genotypes of hepatitis C virus predicted by sequence analysis of the putative E1 gene of isolates collected worldwide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993;90:8234-8.
19. McOmish F, Yap PL, Dow BC, Follett EA, Seed C, Keller AJ, et al. Geographical distribution of hepatitis C virus genotypes in blood donors: an international collaborative survey. J Clin Microbiol. 1994;32:884-92
20. Yoshioka K, Kakumu S, Wakita T, Ishikawa T, Itoh Y, Takayanagi M, et al. Detection of hepatitis C virus by polymerase chain reaction and response to interferon-alpha therapy: relationship to genotypes of hepatitis C virus. Hepatology. 1992;16:293-9.
21. Nousbaum JB, Pol S, Nalpas B, Landais P, Berthelot P, Brechot C. Hepatitis C virus type 1b (II) infection in France and Italy. Collaborative Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122:161-8.
22. Shakil AO, Conry-Cantilena C, Alter HJ, Hayashi P, Kleiner DE, Tedeschi V, et al. Volunteer blood donors with antibody to hepatitis C virus: clinical, biochemical, virologic, and histologic features. The Hepatitis C Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1995;123:330-7.
23. Stevens CE, Taylor PE, Pindyck J, Choo QL, Bradley DW, Kuo G, et al. Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus. A preliminary study in volunteer blood donors. JAMA. 1990;263:49-53.
24. Serfaty L, Nousbaum JB, Elghouzzi MH, Giral P, Legendre C, Poupon R. Prevalence, severity, and risk factors of liver disease in blood donors positive in a second-generation anti-hepatitis C virus screening test. Hepatology. 1995;21:725-9.
25. Darwish MA, Raouf TA, Rushdy P, Constantine NT, Rao MR, Edelman R. Risk factors associated with a high seroprevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in Egyptian blood donors. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1993;49:440-7.
26. al-Faleh FZ, Ayoola EA, al-Jeffry M, al-Rashed R, al-Mofarreh M, Arif M, et al. Prevalence of antibody to hepatitis C virus among Saudi Arabian children: a community-based study. Hepatology. 1991;14:215-8.
27. Hsu HH, Wright TL, Luba D, Martin M, Feinstone SM, Garcia G, et al. Failure to detect hepatitis C virus genome in human secretions with the polymerase chain reaction. Hepatology. 1991;14:763-7.
28. Young KC, Chang TT, Liou TC, Wu HL. Detection of hepatitis C virus RNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and in saliva. J Med Virol. 1993;41: 55-60.
29. Liou TC, Chang TT, Young KC, Lin XZ, Lin CY, Wu HL. Detection of HCV RNA in saliva, urine, seminal fluid, and ascites. J Med Virol. 1992;37: 197-202.
30. Alter MJ, Hadler SC, Judson FN, Mares A, Alexander WJ, Hu PY, et al. Risk factors for acute non-A, non-B hepatitis in the United States and association with hepatitis C virus infection. JAMA. 1990;264:2231-5.
31. Polish LB, Tong MJ, Co RL, Coleman PJ, Alter MJ. Risk factors for hepatitis C virus infection among health care personnel in a community hospital. Am J Infect Control. 1993;21:196-200.
32. Pereira BJ, Milford EL, Kirkman RL, Levey AS. Transmission of hepatitis C virus by organ transplantation. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:454-60.
33. Ko YC, Ho MS, Chiang TA, Chang SJ, Chang PY. Tattooing as a risk of hepatitis C virus infection. J Med Virol. 1992;38:288-91.
34. Donahue JG, Munoz A, Ness PM, Brown DE Jr, Yawn DH, McAllister HA Jr, et al. The declining risk of post-transfusion hepatitis C infection. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:369-73.
35. Bjoro K, Froland SS, Yun Z, Samdal HH, Haaland T. Hepatitis C infection in patients with primary hypogammaglobulinemia after treatment with contaminated immune globulin. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1607-11.
36. Niu MT, Coleman PJ, Alter MJ. Multicenter study of hepatitis C virus infection in chronic hemodialysis patients and hemodialysis center staff members. Am J Kidney Dis. 1993;22:568-73.
37. Hadziyannis SJ, Giannoulis G, Hadziyannis E, Kaklamani E, Alexopoulou A, Dourakis S, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in Greece and its role in chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol. 1993; 17(Suppl 3):S72-7.
38. Brind AM, Codd AA, Cohen BJ, Gabriel FG, Collins JD, James OF, et al. Low prevalence of antibody to hepatitis C virus in north east England. J Med Virol. 1990;32:243-8.
39. Conlon PJ, Walshe JJ, Smyth EG, McNamara EB, Donohoe J, Carmody M. Lower prevalence of anti-hepatitis C antibody in dialysis and renal transplant patients in Ireland. Ir J Med Sci. 1993;162:145-7.
40. Bukh J, Wantzin P, Krogsgaard K, Knudsen F, Purcell RH, Miller RH. High prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA in dialysis patients: failure of commercially available antibody tests to identify a significant number of patients with HCV infection. Copenhagen Dialysis HCV Study Group. J Infect Dis. 1993;168:1343-8.
41. Seelig R, Renz M, Bottner C, Seelig HP. Hepatitis C virus infections in dialysis units: prevalence of HCV-RNA and antibodies to HCV. Ann Med. 1994;26:45-52.
42. Chan TM, Lok AS, Cheng IK, Chan RT. Prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in hemodialysis patients: a longitudinal study comparing the results of RNA and antibody assays. Hepatology. 1993;17:5-8.
43. Gerberding JL. Incidence and prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and cytomegalovirus among health care personnel at risk for blood exposure: final report from a longitudinal study. J Infect Dis. 1994;170:1410-7.
44. Kiyosawa K, Sodeyama T, Tanaka E, Nakano Y, Furuta S, Nishioka K, et al. Hepatitis C in hospital employees with needlestick injuries. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:367-9.
45. Mitsui T, Iwano K, Masuko K, Yamazaki C, Okamoto H, Tsuda F, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in medical personnel after needlestick accident. Hepatology. 1992;16:1109-14.
46. Ohto H, Terazawa S, Sasaki N, Sasaki N, Hino K, Ishiwata C, et al. Transmission of hepatitis C virus from mothers to infants. The Vertical Transmission of Hepatitis C Virus Collaborative Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1994; 330:744-50.
47. Giovannini M, Tagger A, Ribero ML, Zuccotti G, Pogliani L, Grossi A, et al. Maternal-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus and HIV infections: a possible interaction [Letter]. Lancet. 1990;335:1166.
48. Lin HH, Kao JH, Hsu HY, Ni YH, Yeh SH, Hwang LH, et al. Possible role of high-titer maternal viremia in perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Infect Dis. 1994;169:638-41.
49. Akahane Y, Kojima M, Sugai Y, Sakamoto M, Miyazaki Y, Tanaka T, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in spouses of patients with type C chronic liver disease. Ann Intern Med. 1994;120:748-52.
50. Eyster ME, Alter HJ, Aledort LM, Quan S, Hatzakis A, Goedert JJ. Heterosexual co-transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:764-8.
51. Sanchez-Quijano A, Rey C, Aguado I, Pineda JA, Perez-Romero M, Torres Y, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in sexually promiscuous groups. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1990;9:610-2.
52. Thomas DL, Zenilman JM, Alter HJ, Shih JW, Galai N, Carella AV, et al. Sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus among patients attending sexually transmitted diseases clinics in Baltimore - an analysis of 309 sex partnerships. J Infect Dis. 1995;171:768-75.
53. Osmond DH, Charlebois E, Sheppard HW, Page K, Winkelstein W, Moss AR, et al. Comparison of risk factors for hepatitis C and hepatitis B virus infection in homosexual men. J Infect Dis. 1993;167:66-71.
54. Gasparini V, Chiaramonte M, Moschen ME, Fabris P, Altinier G, Majori S, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in homosexual men: a seroepidemiological study in gay clubs in north-east Italy. Eur J Epidemiol. 1991;7: 665-9.
55. Buchbinder SP, Katz MH, Hessol NA, Liu J, O'Malley PM, Alter MJ. Hepatitis C virus infection in sexually active homosexual men. J Infect. 1994; 29:263-9.
56. Westh H, Worm AM, Jensen BL, Kroon S, Kvinesdal B, Nielsen CM, et al. Hepatitis C virus antibodies in homosexual men and intravenous drug users in Denmark. Infection. 1991;21:115-7.
57. Ideo G, Bellati G, Pedraglio E, Bottelli R, Donzelli T, Putignano G. Intrafamilial transmission of hepatitis C virus [Letter]. Lancet. 1990;335:353.
58. Everhart JE, Di Bisceglie AM, Murray LM, Alter HJ, Melpolder JJ, Kuo G, et al. Risk for non-A, non-B (type C) hepatitis through sexual or household contact with chronic carriers. Ann Intern Med. 1990;112:544-5.
59. Deny P, Roulot D, Asselot C, Rauzy M, Rautureau J, Coste T. Low rate of hepatitis C virus (HCV) transmission within the family [Letter]. J Hepatol. 1992;14:409-10.
60. Mondello P, Patti S, Vitale MG, D'Accardo AM, Spano C. Anti-HCV antibodies in household contacts of patients with cirrhosis of the liver - preliminary results [Letter]. Infection. 1992;20:51-2.
61. Bellobuono A, Zanella A, Petrini G, Zanuso F, Mozzi F, Sirchia G. Intrafamilial spread of hepatitis C virus [Letter]. Transfusion. 1991;31:475.
62. Scaraggi FA, Lomuscio S, Perricci A, De Mitrio V, Napoli N, Schiraldi O. Intrafamilial and sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus [Letter]. Lancet. 1993;342:1300-2.
63. Camarero C, Martos I, Delgado R, Suarez L, Escobar H, Mateos M. Horizontal transmission of hepatitis C virus in households of infected children. J Pediatr. 1993;123:98-9.
64. Takahashi M, Yamada G, Doi T, Takatani M, Kishi F, Miyamoto R, et al. Intrafamilial clustering of genotypes of hepatitis C virus RNA. Acta Med Okayama. 1994;48:293-7.
65. Chang TT, Liou TC, Young KC, Lin XZ, Lin CY, Shin JS, et al. Intrafamilial transmission of hepatitis C virus: the important role of inapparent transmission. J Med Virol. 1994;42:91-6.
66. Nalpas B, Thiers V, Pol S, Driss F, Thepot V, Berthelot P, et al. Hepatitis C viremia and anti-HCV antibodies in alcoholics. J Hepatol. 1992; 14:381-4.
67. Nishiguchi S, Kuroki T, Ueda T, Fukuda K, Takeda T, Nakajima S, et al. Detection of hepatitis C virus antibody in the absence of viral RNA in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:21-5.
68. Boudart D, Lucas JC, Muller JY, Le Carrer D, Planchon B, Harousseau JL. False-positive hepatitis C virus antibody tests in paraproteinaemia [Letter]. Lancet. 1990;336:63.
69. Nakagiri I, Ichihara K, Ohmoto K, Hirokawa M, Matsuda N. Analysis of discordant test results among five second-generation assays for anti-hepatitis C virus antibodies also tested by polymerase chain reaction-RNA assay and other laboratory and clinical tests for hepatitis. J Clin Microbiol. 1993;31: 2974-80.
70. Zaaijer HL, Cuypers HT, Reesink HW, Winkel IN, Gerken G, Lelie PN, et al. Reliability of polymerase chain reaction for detection of hepatitis C virus. Lancet. 1993;341:722-4.
71. Young KK, Resnick RM, Myers TW. Detection of hepatitis C virus RNA by a combined reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay. J Clin Microbiol. 1993;31:882-6.
72. Davis GL, Lau JY, Urdea MS, Newald PD, Wilber JC, Lindsay K, et al. Quantitative detection of hepatitis C virus RNA with a solid-phase signal amplification method: definition of optimal conditions for specimen collection and clinical application in interferon-treated patients. Hepatology. 1993; 19:1337-41.
73. Li X, de Medina D, LaRue S, Shao L, Schiff ER. Comparison of assays for HCV RNA [Letter]. Lancet. 1993;342:1174-5.
74. Dienstag JL. Non-A, non-B hepatitis. I: recognition, epidemiology, and clinical features. Gastroenterology. 1983;85:439-62.
75. Yanagi M, Kaneko S, Unoura M, Murakami S, Kobayashi K, Sugihara J, et al. Hepatitis C virus in fulminant hepatic failure [Letter]. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:1895-6.
76. Wright TL, Hsu H, Donegan E, Feinstone S, Greenberg H, Read A, et al. Hepatitis C virus not found in fulminant non-A, non-B hepatitis. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:111-2.
77. Tremolada F, Casarin C, Tagger A, Ribero ML, Realdi G, Alberti A, et al. Antibody to hepatitis C virus in post-transfusion hepatitis. Ann Intern Med. 1991;114:277-81.
78. Farci P, Alter HJ, Wong D, Miller RH, Shih JW, Jett B, et al. A long-term study of hepatitis C virus replication in non-A, non-B hepatitis. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:98-104.
79. Alter MJ, Margolis HS, Krawczynski K, Judson FN, Mares A, Alexander WJ, et al. The natural history of community-acquired hepatitis C in the United States. The Sentinel Counties Chronic non-A, non-B Hepatitis Study Team. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1899-905.
80. Di Bisceglie AM, Goodman ZD, Ishak KG, Hoofnagle JH, Melpolder JJ, Alter HJ. Long-term clinical and histopathological follow-up of chronic post-transfusion hepatitis. Hepatology. 1991;14:969-74.
81. Esteban JI, Lopez-Talavera JC, Genesca J, Madoz P, Viladomiu L, Muniz E, et al. High rate of infectivity and liver disease in blood donors with antibodies to hepatitis C virus. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:443-9.
82. Kiyosawa K, Sodeyama T, Tanaka E, Gibo Y, Yoshizawa K, Nakano Y, et al. Interrelationship of blood transfusion, non-A, non-B hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma: analysis by detection of antibody to hepatitis C virus. Hepatology. 1990;12(4 Pt 1):671-5.
83. Seeff LB, Buskell-Bales Z, Wright EC, Durako SJ, Alter HJ, Iber FL, et al. Long-term mortality after transfusion-associated non-A, non-B hepatitis. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1992;27:1906-11.
84. Koretz RL, Abbey H, Coleman E, Gitnick G. Non-A, non-B post-transfusion hepatitis. Looking back in the second decade. Ann Intern Med. 1993; 119:110-5.
85. Tong MJ, el-Farra NS, Reikes AR, Co RL. Clinical outcomes after transfusion-associated hepatitis C. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:1463-6.
86. DeCastro M, Sanchez J, Herrera JF, Chaves A, Duran R, Garcia-Buey L, et al. Hepatitis C virus antibodies and liver disease in patients with porphyria cutanea tarda. Hepatology. 1993;17:551-7.
87. Agnello V, Chung RT, Kaplan LM. A role for hepatitis C virus infection in type II cryoglobulinemia. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1490-5.
88. Haddad J, Deny P, Munz-Gotheil C, Ambrosini JC, Trinchet JC, Pateron D, et al. Lymphocytic sialadenitis of Sjögren's syndrome associated with chronic hepatitis C virus liver disease. Lancet. 1992;339:321-3.
89. Johnson RJ, Gretch DR, Yamabe H, Hart J, Bacchi CE, Hartwell P, et al. Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis associated with hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:465-70.
90. Pawlotsky JM, Ben Yahia M, Andre C, Voisin MC, Intrator L, Roudot-Thoraval F, et al. Immunological disorders in C virus chronic active hepatitis: a prospective case-control study. Hepatology. 1994;19:841-8.
91. Wilson SE, Lee WM, Murakami C, Weng J, Moninger GA. Mooren-type hepatitis C virus-associated corneal ulceration. Ophthalmology. 1994;101: 736-45.
92. Misiani R, Bellavita P, Fenili D, Vicari O, Marchesi D, Sironi PL, et al. Interferon alfa-2a therapy in cryoglobulinemia associated with hepatitis C virus. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:751-6.
93. Moazami G, Auran JD, Florakis GJ, Wilson SE, Srinivasan DB. Interferon treatment of Mooren's ulcers associated with hepatitis C. Am J Ophthalmol. 1995;119:365-6.
94. Pawlotsky JM, Roudot-Thoraval F, Simmonds P, Mellor J, Ben Yahia MB, Andre C, et al. Extrahepatic immunologic manifestations in chronic hepatitis C and hepatitis C virus serotypes. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122:169-73.
95. Todros L, Touscoz G, D'Urso N, Durazzo M, Albano E, Poli G, et al. Hepatitis C virus-related chronic liver disease with autoantibodies to liver-kidney microsomes (LKM). Clinical characterization from idiopathic LKM-positive disorders. J Hepatol. 1991;13:128-31.
96. Michel G, Ritter A, Gerken G, Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH, Decker R, Manns MP. Anti-GOR and hepatitis C virus in autoimmune liver diseases. Lancet. 1992;339:267-9.
97. Gil B, Qian C, Riezu-Boj JI, Civeira MP, Prieto J. Hepatic and extrahepatic HCV RNA strands in chronic hepatitis C: different patterns of response to interferon treatment. Hepatology. 1993;18:1050-4.
98. Hu KQ, Yu CH, Vierling JM. Direct detection of circulating hepatitis C virus RNA using probes to the 5′ untranslated region. J Clin Invest. 1992;89: 2040-5.
99. Lanford RE, Chavez D, Chisari FV, Sureau C. Lack of detection of negative-strand hepatitis C virus RNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and other extrahepatic tissues by the highly strand-specific rTth reverse transcriptase PCR. J Virol. 1995;69:8079-83.
100. Ogata N, Alter HJ, Miller RH, Purcell RH. Nucleotide sequence and mutation rate of the H strain of hepatitis C virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991;88:3392-6.
101. Shimizu YK, Hijikata M, Iwamoto A, Alter HJ, Purcell RH, Yoshikura H. Neutralizing antibodies against hepatitis C virus and the emergence of neutralization escape mutant viruses. J Virol. 1994;68:1494-500.
102. Farci P, Alter HJ, Govindarajan S, Wong DC, Engle R, Lesniewski RR, et al. Lack of protective immunity against reinfection with hepatitis C virus. Science. 1992;258:135-40.
103. Weiner AJ, Geysen HM, Christopherson C, Hall JE, Mason TJ, Saracco G, et al. Evidence for immune selection of hepatitis C virus (HCV) putative envelope glycoprotein variants: potential role in chronic HCV infections. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992;89:3468-72.
104. Kato N, Sekiya H, Ootsuyama Y, Nakazawa T, Hijikata M, Ohkoshi S, et al. Humoral immune response to hypervariable region 1 of the putative envelope glycoprotein (gp70) of hepatitis C virus. J Virol. 1993;67:3923-30.
105. Kato N, Ootsuyama Y, Sekiya H, Ohkoshi S, Nakazawa T, Hijikata M, et al. Genetic drift in hypervariable region 1 of the viral genome in persistent hepatitis C virus infection. J Virol. 1994;68:4776-84.
106. Goodman ZD, Ishak KG. Histopathology of hepatitis C virus infection. Semin Liver Dis. 1995;15:70-81.
107. Lefkowitch JH, Schiff ER, Davis GL, Perrillo RP, Lindsay K, Bodenheimer HC Jr, et al. Pathological diagnosis of chronic hepatitis C: a multicenter comparative study with chronic hepatitis B. The Hepatitis Interventional Therapy Group. Gastroenterology. 1993;104:595-603.
108. Schupper H, Hayashi P, Scheffel J, Aceituno S, Paglieroni T, Holland PV, et al. Peripheral-blood mononuclear cell responses to recombinant hepatitis C virus antigens in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology. 1993; 18:1055-60.
109. Erickson AL, Houghton M, Choo QL, Weiner AJ, Ralston R, Muchmore E, et al. Hepatitis C virus-specific CTL responses in the liver of chimpanzees with acute and chronic hepatitis C. J Immunol. 1993;151:4189-99.
110. Koziel MJ, Dudley D, Wong JT, Dienstag J, Houghton M, Ralston R, et al. Intrahepatic cytotoxic T lymphocytes specific for heptitis C virus in persons with chronic hepatitis. J Immunol. 1992;149:3339-44.
111. Battegay M, Fikes J, Di Bisceglie AM, Wentworth PA, Sette A, Celis E, et al. Patients with chronic hepatitis C have circulating cytotoxic T cells which recognize hepatitis C virus-encoded peptides binding to HLA-A2.1 molecules. J Virol. 1995;69:2462-70.
112. Shirai M, Okada H, Nishioka M, Akatsuka T, Wychowski C, Houghten R, et al. An epitope in hepatitis C virus core region recognized by cytotoxic T cells in mice and humans. J Virol. 1994;68:3334-42.
113. Koziel MJ, Dudley D, Afdhal N, Choo QL, Houghton M, Ralston R, et al. Hepatitis C virus (HCV)-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes recognize epitopes in the core and envelope proteins of HCV. J Virol. 1993;67:7522-32.
114. Weiner A, Erickson AL, Kansopon J, Crawford K, Muchmore E, Hughes AL, et al. Persistent hepatitis C virus infection in a chimpanzee is associated with emergence of a cytotoxic T lymphocyte escape variant. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995;92:2755-9.
115. Hayashi H, Takikawa T, Nishimura N, Yano M, Isomura T, Sakamoto N. Improvement of serum aminotransferase levels after phlebotomy in patients with chronic active hepatitis C and excess hepatic iron. Am J Gastroenterol. 1994;89:986-8.
116. Olynyk JK, Reddy KR, Di Bisceglie AM, Jeffers LJ, Parker TI, Radick JL, et al. Hepatic iron concentration as a predictor of response to interferon alfa therapy in chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology. 1995;108:1104-9.
117. Zein NN, Rakela J, Persing DH. Genotype-dependent serologic reactivities in patients infected with hepatitis C virus in the United States. Mayo Clin Proc. 1995;70:449-52.
118. Prieto M, Olaso V, Verdu C, Cordoba J, Gisbert C, Rayon M, et al. Does the healthy hepatitis C virus carrier state really exist? An analysis using polymerase chain reaction. Hepatology. 1995;22:413-7.
119. Naito M, Hayashi N, Hagiwara H, Hiramatsu N, Kasahara A, Fusamoto H, et al. Serum hepatitis C virus RNA quantity and histological features of hepatitis C virus carriers with persistently normal ALT levels. Hepatology. 1994;19:871-5.
120. Filipiak CL, Gordon SC, Silverman AL, Neill JS, Wilber JC. Low, normal or minimally raised ALT values do not predict viremic levels or histologic activity in patients with chronic hepatitis C [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1994;20: 347A.
121. Kuboki M, Shinzawa H, Ishibashi M, Yoshii E, Takahashi T, Inuma K, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection and liver disease in ALT normal individuals with anti-HCV positive [Abstract]. Gastroenterology. 1993;104:A931.
122. Shindo M, Arai K, Sokawa Y, Okuno T. The virological and histological states of anti-hepatitis C virus-positive subjects with normal liver biochemical values. Hepatology. 1995;22:418-25.
123. Martinot-Peignoux M, Marcellin P, Pouteau M, Castelnau C, Boyer N, Poliquin M, et al. Pretreatment serum hepatitis C virus RNA levels and hepatitis C virus genotype are the main and independent prognostic factors of sustained response to interferon alfa therapy in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology. 1995;22:1050-6.
124. Shindo M, Di Bisceglie AM, Hoofnagle JH. Long-term follow-up of patients with chronic hepatitis C treated with alpha-interferon. Hepatology. 1992;15:1013-6.
125. Saracco G, Rosina F, Abate ML, Chiandussi L, Gallo V, Cerutti E, et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with chronic hepatitis C treated with different doses of interferon-α2b. Hepatology. 1993;18:1300-5.
126. Castillo I, Bartolome J, Navas S, Gonzalez S, Herrero M, Carreno V. Virological and biochemical long-term follow-up of patients with chronic hepatitis C treated with interferon. Hepatology. 1994;19:1342-6.
127. de Medina M, Schiff ER. Hepatitis C: diagnostic assays. Semin Liver Dis. 1995;15:33-40.
128. Peters M. Mechanism of action of interferons. Semin Liver Dis. 1989;9: 235-9.
129. Samuel CE. Antiviral actions of interferon. Interferon-regulated cellular proteins and their surprisingly selective antiviral activities. Virology. 1991;183: 1-11.
130. Pignatelli M, Waters J, Brown D, Lever A, Iwarson S, Schaff Z, et al. HLA class I antigens on the hepatocyte membrane during recovery from acute hepatitis B virus infection and during interferon therapy in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology. 1986;6:349-53.
131. Davis GL, Balart LA, Schiff ER, Lindsay K, Bodenheimer HC Jr, Perillo RP, et al. Treatment of chronic hepatitis C with recombinant interferon alfa. A multicenter randomized, controlled trial. Hepatitis Interventional Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:1501-6.
132. Di Bisceglie AM, Martin P, Kassianides C, Lisker-Melman M, Murray L, Waggoner J, et al. Recombinant interferon alfa therapy for chronic hepatitis C. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:1506-10.
133. Marcellin P, Boyer N, Giostra E, Degott C, Courouce AM, Degos F, et al. Recombinant human alpha-interferon in patients with chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis: a multicenter randomized controlled trial from France. Hepatology. 1991;13:393-7.
134. Davis GL, Lindsay K, Albrecht J, Bodenheimer HC, Balart LA, Perillo RP, et al. Predictors of response to recombinant alpha interferon treatment in patients with chronic hepatitis C [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1990;12:905A.
135. Camps J, Crisostomo S, Garcia-Granero M, Riezu-Boj JI, Clveira MP, Prieto J. Prediction of the response of chronic hepatitis C to interferon alfa: a statistical analysis of pretreatment variables. Gut. 1993;34:1714-7.
136. Tsubota A, Chayama K, Ikeda K, Yasuji A, Koida I, Saitoh S, et al. Factors predictive of response to interferon-alpha therapy in hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology. 1994;19:1088-94.
137. Camma C, Craxi A, Tine F, Almasio P, Di Marco V, Lo Iacona O, et al. Predictors of response to alpha-interferon in chronic hepatitis C: a multivariate analysis on 361 treated patients [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1992;16:131A.
138. Sugimoto M, Kubota M, Kubo S, Yoshida N, Okajima T, Yamamuro W, et al. The effectiveness of interferon therapy and the background of patients with chronic hepatitis C [Abstract]. Gastroenterology. 1993;104: A1001.
139. Lin R, Liddle C, Farrell GC. Alpha-interferon 2b in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C: interim report of the first multicentre Australian trial. Gastroenterol Jpn. 1993;28(Suppl 5):101-3.
140. Shindo M, Arai K, Sokawa Y, Okuno T. Hepatic hepatitis C virus RNA as a predictor of a long-term response to interferon-alpha therapy. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122:586-91.
141. Lindsay KL, Davis GL, Schiff E, Boddenheimer H, Balart L, Dienstag J, et al. Long term response to higher doses of interferon alfa-2b treatment of patients with chronic hepatitis C: A randomized controlled multicenter trial [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1993;18:106A.
142. Enomoto M, Sakuma I, Asahina Y, Kurosaki M, Murakami T, Yamamoto C, et al. Mutations in the nonstructural protein 5A gene and response to interferon in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus 1b infection. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:77-81.
143. Pagliaro L, Craxi A, Cammaa C, Tine F, Di Marco V, Lo Iacona O, et al. Interferon-alpha for chronic hepatitis C: an analysis of pretreatment clinical predictors of response. Hepatology. 1994;19:820-8.
144. Reichard O, Foberg U, Fryden A, Mattsson L, Norkrans G, Sonnerborg A, et al. High sustained response rate and clearance of viremia in chronic hepatitis C after treatment with interferon-alpha 2b for 60 weeks. Hepatology. 1994;19:280-5.
145. Kasahara A, Hayashi N, Hiramatsu N, Oshita M, Hagiwara H, Katayama K, et al. Ability of prolonged interferon treatment to suppress relapse after cessation of therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis C: a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Hepatology. 1995;21:291-7.
146. Poynard T, Bedossa P, Chevallier M, Mathurin P, Lemonnier C, Trepo C, et al. A comparison of three interferon alfa-2b regimens for the long-term treatment of chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis. Multicenter Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:1457-62.
147. Chemello L, Bonetti P, Cavalletto L, Talato F, Donadon V, Casarin P, et al. Randomized trial comparing three different regimens of alpha-2a-interferon in chronic hepatitis C. The TriVeneto Viral Hepatitis Group. Hepatology. 1995;22:700-6.
148. Fried MW, Hoofnagle JH. Therapy of hepatitis C. Semin Liver Dis. 1995; 15:82-91.
149. Smedley H, Katrak M, Sikora K, Wheeler T. Neurological effects of recombinant human interferon. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1983;286:262-4.
150. Renault PF, Hoofnagle JH, Park Y, Mullen KD, Peters M, Jones DB, et al. Psychiatric complications of long-term interferon alfa therapy. Arch Intern Med. 1987;147:1577-80.
151. McDonald EM, Mann AH, Thomas HC. Interferons as mediators of psychiatric morbidity. An investigation in a trial of recombinant alpha-interferon in hepatitis-B carriers. Lancet. 1987;2:1175-8.
152. Janssen HL, Berk L, Vermeulen M, Schalm SW. Seizures associated with low-dose alpha-interferon [Letter]. Lancet. 1990;336:1580.
153. Averbuch SD, Austin HA 3d, Sherwin SA, Antonovych J, Bunn PA Jr, Longo DL. Acute interstitial nephritis with the nephrotic syndrome following recombinant leukocyte a interferon therapy for mycosis fungoides. N Engl J Med. 1984;310:32-5.
154. Deyton LR, Walker RE, Kovacs JA, Herpin B, Parker M, Masur H, et al. Reversible cardiac dysfunction associated with interferon alfa therapy in AIDS patients with Kaposi's sarcoma. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:1246-9.
155. Shiell A, Briggs A, Farrell G. The cost effectiveness of alpha interferon in the treatment of chronic active hepatitis C. Med J Aust. 1994;160:268-72.
156. Finkelstein SD, Sayegh R, Uchman S, Christensen S, Swalsky P. HCV undergoes extensive mutational change in NS5 region in association with relapse/breakthrough following alfa-interferon therapy [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1992;16:132A.
157. Milella M, Antonelli G, Santantonio T, Currenti M, Monno L, Mariano N, et al. Neutralizing antibodies to recombinant alpha-interferon and response to therapy in chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Liver. 1993;13: 146-50.
158. Papo T, Marcellin P, Bernuau I, Durand F, Poynard T, Benhamou JP. Autoimmune chronic hepatitis exacerbated by alpha-interferon. Ann Intern Med 1992;116:51-3.
159. Funk J, Langeland T, Schrumpf E, Hanssen LE. Psoriasis induced by interferon-alpha. Br J Dermatol. 1991;125:463-5.
160. Protzer U, Ochsendorf FR, Leopolder-Ochsendorf A, Holtermuller KH. Exacerbation of lichen planus during interferon alfa-2a therapy for chronic active hepatitis C. Gastroenterology. 1993;104:903-5.
161. Wandl UB, Nagel-Hiemke M, May D, Kreuzfelder E, Kloke O, Kranzhoff M, et al. Lupus-like autoimmune disease induced by interferon therapy for
162. Silva M, Li X, Cheinquer H, Kolodny L, Radick J, La Rue S, et al. HCV associated idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura [Abstract]. Gastroenterology. 1992;102:A889.
163. Berris B, Feinman SV. Thyroid dysfunction and liver injury following alpha-interferon treatment of chronic viral hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci. 1991;36:1657-60.
164. Serfaty L, Chazouilleres O, Pawlotsky JM, Andreani T, Pellet C, Poupon R, et al. Interferon alfa therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis C and persistently normal aminotransferase activity. Gastroenterology. 1996;110: 291-5.
165. Castilla A, Prieto J, Fausto N. Transforming growth factors beta 1 and alpha in chronic liver disease. Effects of interferon alfa therapy. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:933-40.
166. Suou T, Hosho K, Kishimoto Y, Horie Y, Kawasaki H. Long-term decrease in serum N-terminal propeptide of type III procollagen in patients with chronic hepatitis C treated with interferon alfa. Hepatology. 1995;22: 426-31.
167. Nishiguchi S, Kuroki T, Nakatani S, Morimoto H, Takeda T, Nakajima S, et al. Randomised trial of effects of interferon-α on incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic active hepatitis C with cirrhosis. Lancet. 1995;346:1051-5.
168. Fong TL, Valinluck B, Govindarajan S, Charboneau F, Adkins RH, Redeker AG. Short-term prednisone therapy affects aminotransferase activity and hepatitis C virus RNA levels in chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology. 1994;107:196-9.
169. Rezakovic I, Zavaglia C, Botteli R, Ideo G. A pilot study of thymosin alpha 1 therapy in chronic active hepatitis C [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1993; 18:252A.
170. Pappas SC, Hoofnagle JH, Young N, Straus SE, Jones EA. Treatment of chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis with acyclovir: a pilot study. J Med Virol. 1985;15:1-9.
171. Mattera D, Campania Cooperative Group. Beta interferon in chronic hepatitis C: a multicenter trial [Abstract]. Gastroenterology. 1993;104:A951.
172. Castilla A, Camps-Bansell J, Civeira MP, Prieto J. Lymphoblastoid alpha-interferon for chronic hepatitis C: a randomized controlled study. Am J Gastroenterol. 1993;88:233-9.
173. Tong MJ, Blatt LM, Resser K, Klein M, Figueroa TA. Treatment of patients with chronic HCV infection with a novel type-1 interferon, consensus interferon [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1993;18:150A.
174. Brillanti S, Garson J, Foli M, Whitby K, Deaville R, Masci C, et al. A pilot study of combination therapy with ribavirin plus interferon alfa for interferon alfa-resistant chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology. 1994;107: 812-7.
175. Camps J, Garcia N, Riezu-Boj JI, Civeira MP, Prieto J. Ribavirin in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C unresponsive to alfa interferon. J Hepatol. 1993;19:408-12.
176. Di Bisceglie AM, Shindo M, Fong TL, Fried MW, Swain MG, Bergasa NV, et al. A pilot study of ribavirin therapy for chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology. 1992;16:649-54.
177. Reichard O, Yun ZB, Sonnerborg A, Weiland O. Hepatitis C viral RNA titers in serum prior to, during, and after oral treatment with ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C. J Med Virol. 1993;41:99-102.
178. Takano S, Ito Y, Yokosuka O, Ohto M, Uchiumi K, Hirota K, et al. A multicenter randomized controlled dose study of ursodeoxycholic acid for chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology. 1994;20:558-64.
179. Beloqui O, Prieto J, Suarez M, Gil B, Qian CH, Garcia N, et al. N-acetylcysteine enhances the response to interferon-alpha in chronic hepatitis C: a pilot study. J Interferon Res. 1993;13:279-32.
180. 2 production by cultured liver biopsy in patients with chronic viral hepatitis: can non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs improve the therapeutic response to interferon? J Hepatol. 1993;19:228-31.
181. Andreone P, Cursaro C, Gramenzi A, Buzzi A, Miniero R, Spirovieri G, et al. Alfa-interferon plus indomethacin combined therapy for non-responder patients with chronic hepatitis C [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1993;18: 221A.
182. Andreone P, Cursaro C, Gramenzi A, Buzzi A, Semeraro R, Bernardi M, et al. Pilot study of α-interferon and ketoprofen combined therapy in non-responder patients with chronic hepatitis C: An interim report [Abstract]. Gastroenterology. 1994;106:A859.
183. Lampertico P, Rumi M, Romeo R, Craxi A, Soffredini R, Biassoni D, et al. A multicenter randomized controlled trial of recombinant interferon-alpha 2b in patients with acute transfusion-associated hepatitis C. Hepatology. 1994;19:19-22.
184. Viladomiu L, Genesca J, Esteban JI, Allende H, Gonzalez A, Lopez-Talavera JC, et al. Interferon-alpha in acute posttransfusion hepatitis C: a randomized, controlled trial. Hepatology. 1992;15:767-9.
185. Omata M, Yokosuka O, Takano S, Kato N, Hosoda K, Imazeki F, et al. Resolution of acute hepatitis C after therapy with natural beta interferon. Lancet. 1991;338:914-5.
186. Vogel W, Umlauft F, Datz C, Judmaier G, Shneider G, Grunewald K, et al. High dose interferon alpha for acute hepatitis C [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1993;14:89A.
187. Ascher NL, Lake JR, Emond J, Roberts J. Liver transplantation for hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis. Hepatology. 1994;20(1 Pt 2):24S-7S.
188. Wright TL, Donegan E, Hsu HH, Ferrell L, Lake JR, Kim M, et al. Recurrent and acquired hepatitis C viral infection in liver transplant recipients. Gastroenterology. 1992;103:317-22.
189. Feray C, Gigou M, Samuel D, Paradis V, Wilber J, David MF, et al. The course of hepatitis C virus infection after liver transplantation. Hepatology. 1994;20:1137-43.
190. Weinstein JS, Poterucha JJ, Rakela J, Krom RA, Wiesner RH. Long-term outcome of hepatitis C infected liver transplant recipients [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1994;20:133A.
191. Boker KH, Bahr MJ, Dalley G, Maschek H, Tillmann HL, Oldhaver K, et al. Long term outcome of hepatitis C virus infection after liver transplantation [Abstract]. Hepatology. 1995;22:134A.
192. Wright TL, Combs C, Kim M, Ferrell L, Bacchetti P, Ascher N, et al. Interferon-alpha therapy for hepatitis C virus infection after liver transplantation. Hepatology. 1994;20(4 Pt 1):773-9.
193. Liang TJ, Jeffers U, Reddy KR, De Medina M, Parker IT, Cheinquer H, et al. Viral pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States. Hepatology. 1993;18:1326-33.
194. Simonetti RG, Camma C, Fiorello F, Cottone M, Rapicetta M, Marino L, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection as a risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cirrhosis. A case-control study. Ann Intern Med. 1992; 116:97-102.
195. Tanaka K, Hirohata T, Koga S, Sugimachi K, Kanematsu T, Ohryohji F, et al. Hepatitis C and hepatitis B in the etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in the Japanese population. Cancer Res. 1991;51:2842-7.
196. De Mitri MS, Poussin K, Baccarini P, Pontisso P, D'Errico A, Simon N, et al. HCV-associated liver cancer without cirrhosis. Lancet. 1995;345: 413-5.
197. Miyakawa H, Sato C, Izumi N, Tazawa J, Ebata A, Hattori K, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in alcoholic liver cirrhosis in Japan: its contribution to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. Alcohol Alcohol Suppl. 1993;1A:85-90.
198. Colombo M, de Franchis R, Del Ninno E, Sangiovanni A, De Fazio C, Tommasini M, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma in Italian patients with cirrhosis. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:675-80.
199. McMahon BJ, London T. Workshop on screening for hepatocellular carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1991;83:916-9.
200. Early diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in Italy. A summary of a consensus development conference held in Milan, 16 November 1990 by the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver (AISF). J Hepatol. 1992;14:401-3.
201. Public Health Service inter-agency guidelines for screening donors of blood, plasma, organs, tissues, and semen for evidence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1991;40(RR-4):1-17.
202. Pares A, Barrera JM, Caballeria J, Ercilla G, Bruguera M, Caballeria L, et al. Hepatitis C virus antibodies in chronic alcoholic patients: association with severity of liver injury. Hepatology. 1990;12:1295-9.
203. Choo QL, Kuo G, Ralston R, Weiner A, Chien D, Van Nest G, et al. Vaccination of chimpanzees against infection by the hepatitis C virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994;91:1294-8.