Which came first, the fossil or the fuel?

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 26, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 733-766

  Cole, Simon A ^a  

^a Department of Obstetrics Gynecology   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030507323     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631296026004002     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1934), 156-58. For some additional well-known expressions of this view, see Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row, 1980); E.F. Schumacher, Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 13-22; R. Buckminster Fuller, Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth (New York: Arkana, 1969), 122-24.
2. Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1934), 156-58. For some additional well-known expressions of this view, see Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row, 1980); E.F. Schumacher, Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 13-22; R. Buckminster Fuller, Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth (New York: Arkana, 1969), 122-24.
3. Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1934), 156-58. For some additional well-known expressions of this view, see Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row, 1980); E.F. Schumacher, Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 13-22; R. Buckminster Fuller, Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth (New York: Arkana, 1969), 122-24.
4. Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1934), 156-58. For some additional well-known expressions of this view, see Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row, 1980); E.F. Schumacher, Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 13-22; R. Buckminster Fuller, Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth (New York: Arkana, 1969), 122-24.
5. Dimitri Medelee[v], 'L'Origine du Pétrole', Révue Scientifique, Vol. 7 (3 November 1877), 409-16; G. Wagner, 'Sitzung der Russischen Chemischen Gesellschaft am 13./25. Januar 1877', Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 10 (1877), 229-30.
6. Dimitri Medelee[v], 'L'Origine du Pétrole', Révue Scientifique, Vol. 7 (3 November 1877), 409-16; G. Wagner, 'Sitzung der Russischen Chemischen Gesellschaft am 13./25. Januar 1877', Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 10 (1877), 229-30.
7. Sir Robert Robinson, 'The Origins of Petroleum', Nature, Vol. 212 (17 December 1966), 1291-95.
8. Ben B. Cox, 'Transformation of Organic Material into Petroleum under Geological Conditions ("The Geological Fence")', Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 30 (1946), 645-59. Robinson, op. cit. note 3, took a moderate position, allowing for biological and primordial hydrocarbons to coexist. The abiogenic theory was considered a radical idea, requiring a pre-emptive defence from the editors when George Rudakov published 'Recent Developments in the Theory of the Non-Biogenic Origin of Petroleum', Chemical Geology, Vol. 2 (1967), 179-85. Prejudice against 'red' science may have hindered the efficacy of Soviet support for abiogenesis.
9. Ben B. Cox, 'Transformation of Organic Material into Petroleum under Geological Conditions ("The Geological Fence")', Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 30 (1946), 645-59. Robinson, op. cit. note 3, took a moderate position, allowing for biological and primordial hydrocarbons to coexist. The abiogenic theory was considered a radical idea, requiring a pre-emptive defence from the editors when George Rudakov published 'Recent Developments in the Theory of the Non-Biogenic Origin of Petroleum', Chemical Geology, Vol. 2 (1967), 179-85. Prejudice against 'red' science may have hindered the efficacy of Soviet support for abiogenesis.
10. Ben B. Cox, 'Transformation of Organic Material into Petroleum under Geological Conditions ("The Geological Fence")', Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 30 (1946), 645-59. Robinson, op. cit. note 3, took a moderate position, allowing for biological and primordial hydrocarbons to coexist. The abiogenic theory was considered a radical idea, requiring a pre-emptive defence from the editors when George Rudakov published 'Recent Developments in the Theory of the Non-Biogenic Origin of Petroleum', Chemical Geology, Vol. 2 (1967), 179-85. Prejudice against 'red' science may have hindered the efficacy of Soviet support for abiogenesis.
11. Donald McCloskey quote reads: 'Americans say they don't hold much with experts. . . . And from Maine to California the capitalistic, American democrat relishes that most American of sneers, that American Question: 'If you're so smart, why ain't you rich?'. Donald McCloskey, If You're So Smart: The Narrative of Economic Expertise (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1990), 111.
12. This paper makes use of interview data. I conducted an extensive interview with Thomas Gold, and I spoke to him in several follow-up sessions. To represent the biogenic view, I interviewed five earth scientists (Scientists A-E). My criteria for selecting interview subjects were proximity, knowledge of the subject matter, the recommendations of other interview subjects ('snowball sampling'), and willingness to consent to an interview. The latter was crucial, because I found that many earth scientists were reluctant to talk about either Gold or the abiogenic theory. In most cases, they claimed that the controversy is 'closed', and suggested alternative topics. One prominent earth scientist did not respond to my request for an interview. Scientists B and C spoke to me at length, but they declined tape-recorded interviews. 'Off the record' comments, though not quoted directly, inform my impressions of the controversy. These experiences prompted me to target earth scientists who were reputed to be more willing to discuss abiogenesis. I attribute my interview subjects' amenability more to their outspokenness than to any greater sympathy for the theory. With the exception of my conversations with Scientists B and C, all interviews were taped. When personal interviews were not possible, I conducted interviews by telephone. I interviewed two biologists (Scientists F and G) about the role that the controversy plays in microbiology. Of these, only Scientist F is quoted in this paper, but G's statements corroborate F's.
13. G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociological Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 68.
14. H.M. Collins and Trevor J. Pinch, The Golem: What Everyone Should Know About Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 62-74; Brace V. Lewenstein, 'Cold Fusion and Hot History', Osiris, Vol. 7 (1992), 135-63; Lewenstein, 'La Saga de la Fusion froide', La Recherche, Vol. 25 (1994), 636-41.
15. H.M. Collins and Trevor J. Pinch, The Golem: What Everyone Should Know About Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 62-74; Brace V. Lewenstein, 'Cold Fusion and Hot History', Osiris, Vol. 7 (1992), 135-63; Lewenstein, 'La Saga de la Fusion froide', La Recherche, Vol. 25 (1994), 636-41.
16. H.M. Collins and Trevor J. Pinch, The Golem: What Everyone Should Know About Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 62-74; Brace V. Lewenstein, 'Cold Fusion and Hot History', Osiris, Vol. 7 (1992), 135-63; Lewenstein, 'La Saga de la Fusion froide', La Recherche, Vol. 25 (1994), 636-41.
17. Robert K. Merton, 'The Institutional Imperatives of Science', in Barry Barnes (ed.), Sociology of Science: Selected Readings (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1972), 75-77; Jürgen Habermas, trans. Jeremy J. Shapiro, Knowledge and Human Interests (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1971), 311-12.
18. Robert K. Merton, 'The Institutional Imperatives of Science', in Barry Barnes (ed.), Sociology of Science: Selected Readings (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1972), 75-77; Jürgen Habermas, trans. Jeremy J. Shapiro, Knowledge and Human Interests (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1971), 311-12.
19. H.M. Collins, 'Stages in the Empirical Programme of Relativism', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11 (1981), 3-10, at 7. It might be inferred that, for Collins's purposes, the 'purer' the science - that is, the least apparently social - the better. But Daryl E. Chubin suggests that more politicized cases are 'harder' in 'Collin's Programme and the "Hardest Possible Case" ', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12 (1982), 136-39; Collins, 'Special Relativism - The Natural Attitude', ibid., 139-43. Malcolm Ashmore proposes some alternative hard cases: debunking the debunking of N-rays or the reflexive analysis of the sociology of scientific knowledge itself in 'The Theatre of the Blind: Starring a Promethean Prankster, a Phoney Phenomenon, a Prism, a Pocket, and a Piece of Wood', ibid., Vol. 23 (1993), 67-106; Ashmore, The Reflexive Thesis: Wrighting the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1989), 44. (Ashmore does not call N-rays a 'hard case' in the article, but he did in a seminar meeting at Cornell University in 1993.) I am suggesting that the origin of petroleum is the hardest case precisely because the most powerful social interests have been brought to bear. If we take seriously sociology's claim that science is socially constructed, then cases in which social interests are most powerful must be the 'hardest'.
20. H.M. Collins, 'Stages in the Empirical Programme of Relativism', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11 (1981), 3-10, at 7. It might be inferred that, for Collins's purposes, the 'purer' the science - that is, the least apparently social - the better. But Daryl E. Chubin suggests that more politicized cases are 'harder' in 'Collin's Programme and the "Hardest Possible Case" ', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12 (1982), 136-39; Collins, 'Special Relativism - The Natural Attitude', ibid., 139-43. Malcolm Ashmore proposes some alternative hard cases: debunking the debunking of N-rays or the reflexive analysis of the sociology of scientific knowledge itself in 'The Theatre of the Blind: Starring a Promethean Prankster, a Phoney Phenomenon, a Prism, a Pocket, and a Piece of Wood', ibid., Vol. 23 (1993), 67-106; Ashmore, The Reflexive Thesis: Wrighting the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1989), 44. (Ashmore does not call N-rays a 'hard case' in the article, but he did in a seminar meeting at Cornell University in 1993.) I am suggesting that the origin of petroleum is the hardest case precisely because the most powerful social interests have been brought to bear. If we take seriously sociology's claim that science is socially constructed, then cases in which social interests are most powerful must be the 'hardest'.
21. H.M. Collins, 'Stages in the Empirical Programme of Relativism', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11 (1981), 3-10, at 7. It might be inferred that, for Collins's purposes, the 'purer' the science - that is, the least apparently social - the better. But Daryl E. Chubin suggests that more politicized cases are 'harder' in 'Collin's Programme and the "Hardest Possible Case" ', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12 (1982), 136-39; Collins, 'Special Relativism - The Natural Attitude', ibid., 139-43. Malcolm Ashmore proposes some alternative hard cases: debunking the debunking of N-rays or the reflexive analysis of the sociology of scientific knowledge itself in 'The Theatre of the Blind: Starring a Promethean Prankster, a Phoney Phenomenon, a Prism, a Pocket, and a Piece of Wood', ibid., Vol. 23 (1993), 67-106; Ashmore, The Reflexive Thesis: Wrighting the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1989), 44. (Ashmore does not call N-rays a 'hard case' in the article, but he did in a seminar meeting at Cornell University in 1993.) I am suggesting that the origin of petroleum is the hardest case precisely because the most powerful social interests have been brought to bear. If we take seriously sociology's claim that science is socially constructed, then cases in which social interests are most powerful must be the 'hardest'.
22. H.M. Collins, 'Stages in the Empirical Programme of Relativism', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11 (1981), 3-10, at 7. It might be inferred that, for Collins's purposes, the 'purer' the science - that is, the least apparently social - the better. But Daryl E. Chubin suggests that more politicized cases are 'harder' in 'Collin's Programme and the "Hardest Possible Case" ', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12 (1982), 136-39; Collins, 'Special Relativism - The Natural Attitude', ibid., 139-43. Malcolm Ashmore proposes some alternative hard cases: debunking the debunking of N-rays or the reflexive analysis of the sociology of scientific knowledge itself in 'The Theatre of the Blind: Starring a Promethean Prankster, a Phoney Phenomenon, a Prism, a Pocket, and a Piece of Wood', ibid., Vol. 23 (1993), 67-106; Ashmore, The Reflexive Thesis: Wrighting the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1989), 44. (Ashmore does not call N-rays a 'hard case' in the article, but he did in a seminar meeting at Cornell University in 1993.) I am suggesting that the origin of petroleum is the hardest case precisely because the most powerful social interests have been brought to bear. If we take seriously sociology's claim that science is socially constructed, then cases in which social interests are most powerful must be the 'hardest'.
23. H.M. Collins, 'Stages in the Empirical Programme of Relativism', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11 (1981), 3-10, at 7. It might be inferred that, for Collins's purposes, the 'purer' the science - that is, the least apparently social - the better. But Daryl E. Chubin suggests that more politicized cases are 'harder' in 'Collin's Programme and the "Hardest Possible Case" ', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12 (1982), 136-39; Collins, 'Special Relativism - The Natural Attitude', ibid., 139-43. Malcolm Ashmore proposes some alternative hard cases: debunking the debunking of N-rays or the reflexive analysis of the sociology of scientific knowledge itself in 'The Theatre of the Blind: Starring a Promethean Prankster, a Phoney Phenomenon, a Prism, a Pocket, and a Piece of Wood', ibid., Vol. 23 (1993), 67-106; Ashmore, The Reflexive Thesis: Wrighting the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1989), 44. (Ashmore does not call N-rays a 'hard case' in the article, but he did in a seminar meeting at Cornell University in 1993.) I am suggesting that the origin of petroleum is the hardest case precisely because the most powerful social interests have been brought to bear. If we take seriously sociology's claim that science is socially constructed, then cases in which social interests are most powerful must be the 'hardest'.
24. Samuel Langhorne Clemens, Pudd'nhead Wilson (New York: Norton, 1980), 40.
25. In this way, his reputation resembles that of another controversial scientist, Martin Fleischmann of cold fusion fame: see Collins & Pinch, op. cit. note 8, 62.
26. D. Lynden-Bell, 'Address of the President on the Presentation of the Gold Medal to Professor T. Gold', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 26 (1985), 233-34; W. Ian Axford (Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie), 'The Good Old Days' (unpublished address commemorating the 75th anniversary of the American Geophysical Union).
27. D. Lynden-Bell, 'Address of the President on the Presentation of the Gold Medal to Professor T. Gold', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 26 (1985), 233-34; W. Ian Axford (Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie), 'The Good Old Days' (unpublished address commemorating the 75th anniversary of the American Geophysical Union).
28. Characterizations of Linus Pauling, a two-time Nobel Prize winner embroiled in a bitter controversy over the efficacy of megadoses of vitamin C as a cure for cancer, run the same gamut from 'genius' to 'maverick': see Evelleen Richards, Vitamin C and Cancer: Medicine or Politics? (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991), 34.
29. T. Gold and Richard J. Pumphrey, 'Hearing 1: The Cochlea as a Frequency Analyzer', Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Vol. 135 (1948), 462-91; Gold, 'Hearing II: The Physical Basis of the Action of the Cochlea', ibid., 492-98.
30. T. Gold and Richard J. Pumphrey, 'Hearing 1: The Cochlea as a Frequency Analyzer', Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Vol. 135 (1948), 462-91; Gold, 'Hearing II: The Physical Basis of the Action of the Cochlea', ibid., 492-98.
31. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
32. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
33. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
34. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
35. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
36. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
37. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
38. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
39. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
40. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
41. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
42. James Lighthill, 'Biomechanics of Hearing Sensitivity', Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 113 (1991), 1-12; John P. Wilson and David T. Kemp, 'Preface', in Wilson and Kemp (eds), Cochlear Mechanisms: Structure, Function, and Models (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), vii-viii; Kenneth L. Jones and D.O. Kim, 'A Three-Degree-of-Freedom Active Micromechanical Model of the Cochlear Partition', in Wilson & Kemp (eds), op. cit., 83-92, at 84 Robert B. Patuzzi, Graeme K. Yates and Brian M. Johnstone, 'Outer Hair Cell Receptor Current and its Effect on Cochlear Mechanics', in ibid., 169-76, at 169; T. Gold, 'Historical Background to the Proposal, 40 Years Ago, of an Active Model for Cochlear Frequency Analysis', in ibid., 299-305; Eugene Garfield, 'Premature Discovery or Delayed Recognition - Why?', in Garfield, Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol. 4 (Philadelphia, PA: ISI Press, 1981), 488-93; Garfield, 'Delayed Recognition in Scientific Discovery: Citation Frequency Analysis Aids the Search for Case Histories', in ibid., Vol. 12 (1991), 154-63; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 1 : Examples from the Genetics of Color Blindness, the Entropy of Short-Term Memory, Phosphoinositides, and Polymer Rheology', in ibid., 264-69; Garfield, 'More Delayed Recognition, Part 2: From Inhibin to Scanning Electron Microscopy', in ibid., Vol. 13 (1991), 68-74; Stephen Cole, 'Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 76 (1970), 286-306; Gunther S. Stent, 'Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery', Scientific American (December 1972), 84-93; Bernard Barber, 'Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery', Science, Vol. 134 (1 September 1961), 596-602.
43. T. Gold, 'Rotating Neutron Stars as the Origin of the Pulsating Radio Sources', Nature, Vol. 218 (25 May 1968), 731-32; Gold, 'Rotating Neutron Stars and the Nature of Pulsars', Nature, Vol. 221 (4 January 1969), 25-27.
44. T. Gold, 'Rotating Neutron Stars as the Origin of the Pulsating Radio Sources', Nature, Vol. 218 (25 May 1968), 731-32; Gold, 'Rotating Neutron Stars and the Nature of Pulsars', Nature, Vol. 221 (4 January 1969), 25-27.
45. Thomas Gold, 'The Nature of Pulsars', Current Contents (22 February 1993), 9.
46. Lynden-Bell, op. cit. note 13, 233-34.
47. Gold, op. cit. note 18, 8-9.
48. Axford, op. cit. note 13, 7-8.
49. James Houck, quoted in Lillie Wilson, 'Cornell Scientist's Oil Theory Gushes Against Convention', Syracuse Herald American (8 December 1991), D1.
50. In Anthony Liversidge, 'Heresy! Three Modern Galileos', Omni (June 1993), 43-51, quote at 50, Gold compares himself to Girolamo Savonarola, the fifteenth-century reformer. The Giordano Bruno and Spanish Inquisition comparisons are from personal communications (1993-94).
51. Liversidge, ibid., has pointed out the similarity between Gold's situation and Linus Pauling's. Pauling's Nobel prizes may get him a better hearing than someone without them, but they do not help convince anyone that he is right about vitamin C. Quite the contrary (as Richards, op. cit. note 14, 184-85, points out), Pauling's critics accused him of irresponsibly capitalizing on his reputation to promote a bogus cure.
52. Liversidge, ibid., has pointed out the similarity between Gold's situation and Linus Pauling's. Pauling's Nobel prizes may get him a better hearing than someone without them, but they do not help convince anyone that he is right about vitamin C. Quite the contrary (as Richards, op. cit. note 14, 184-85, points out), Pauling's critics accused him of irresponsibly capitalizing on his reputation to promote a bogus cure.
53. David Osborne, 'The Origin of Petroleum', Atlantic (February 1986) 39-54, at 42.
54. To draw an analogy from internal debates within the sociology of science, when H.M. Collins and Steven Yearley say, 'Latour's sparkling writings have been especially influential in the English speaking world', their aim is to suggest that Labour has won adherents for his writing skills rather than for the validity of his ideas: see Collins and Yearley, 'Epistemological Chicken', in Andrew Pickering (ed.), Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press), 301-26, quote at 309.
55. For reports of financial misdealings, see Peter Fuhrman, 'A Tulip Wilts in Stockholm', Forbes (4 April 1988), 49.
56. Gilbert & Mulkay, op. cit. note 7, 79.
57. Thomas Gold, 'New Ideas in Science', Journal of Scientific Exploration, Vol. 3 (1989), 103-12, quote at 110.
58. David Brown, 'Gas Study Creates Sparks', AAPG Explorer, Vol. 16 (July 1994), 6-9.
59. Robert Musil, trans. Peter Wortsman, Posthumous Papers of a Living Author (Hygiene, CO: Eridanos Press, 1987), 97.
60. Quoted in Wilson, op. cit. note 22. Gold might turn the tables by replying, 'Of course, I am not interested, in the Habermasian sense, in geological facts. But that is precisely the point. I am trying to find out where oil and gas come from'. Notice also that a 'fact' is treated as an inscription - what is written in 'a book on geology' - a curious contention for the quintessential field science.
61. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1962), 133.
62. John A. Stewart, Drifting Continents and Colliding Paradigms: Perspectives on the Geoscience Revolution (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1990), 38.
63. For the definitive argument, see Thomas Gold, Power from the Earth: Deep Earth Gas - Energy for the Future (London: J.M. Dent, 1987). For a concise summary, see Gold, 'The Origin of Methane in the Crust of the Earth', in David G. Howell (ed.), The Future of Energy Gases (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1993), 57-80. For an even shorter summary, see Gold, 'Oil from the Centre of the Earth', New Scientist (26 June 1986), 42-46.
64. For the definitive argument, see Thomas Gold, Power from the Earth: Deep Earth Gas - Energy for the Future (London: J.M. Dent, 1987). For a concise summary, see Gold, 'The Origin of Methane in the Crust of the Earth', in David G. Howell (ed.), The Future of Energy Gases (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1993), 57-80. For an even shorter summary, see Gold, 'Oil from the Centre of the Earth', New Scientist (26 June 1986), 42-46.
65. For the definitive argument, see Thomas Gold, Power from the Earth: Deep Earth Gas - Energy for the Future (London: J.M. Dent, 1987). For a concise summary, see Gold, 'The Origin of Methane in the Crust of the Earth', in David G. Howell (ed.), The Future of Energy Gases (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1993), 57-80. For an even shorter summary, see Gold, 'Oil from the Centre of the Earth', New Scientist (26 June 1986), 42-46.
66. Thomas Gold, 'The Deep, Hot Biosphere', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, Vol. 89 (1992), 6045-49.
67. R. John Parkes et al., 'Deep Bacterial Biosphere in Pacific Ocean Sediments', Nature, Vol. 371 (29 September 1994), 410-13; John Parkes and James Maxwell, 'Some Like it Hot (and Oily)', Nature, Vol. 365 (21 October 1993), 694-95; K.O. Stetter et al., 'Hyperthermophilic Archaea are Thriving in Deep North Sea and Alaskan Oil Reservoirs', ibid., 743-45; William J. Broad, 'Drillers Find Lost World of Ancient Microbes', New York Times (4 October 1994), C1; Broad, 'Strange New Microbes Hint at Vast Subterranean World', ibid. (28 December 1994), C1.
68. R. John Parkes et al., 'Deep Bacterial Biosphere in Pacific Ocean Sediments', Nature, Vol. 371 (29 September 1994), 410-13; John Parkes and James Maxwell, 'Some Like it Hot (and Oily)', Nature, Vol. 365 (21 October 1993), 694-95; K.O. Stetter et al., 'Hyperthermophilic Archaea are Thriving in Deep North Sea and Alaskan Oil Reservoirs', ibid., 743-45; William J. Broad, 'Drillers Find Lost World of Ancient Microbes', New York Times (4 October 1994), C1; Broad, 'Strange New Microbes Hint at Vast Subterranean World', ibid. (28 December 1994), C1.
69. R. John Parkes et al., 'Deep Bacterial Biosphere in Pacific Ocean Sediments', Nature, Vol. 371 (29 September 1994), 410-13; John Parkes and James Maxwell, 'Some Like it Hot (and Oily)', Nature, Vol. 365 (21 October 1993), 694-95; K.O. Stetter et al., 'Hyperthermophilic Archaea are Thriving in Deep North Sea and Alaskan Oil Reservoirs', ibid., 743-45; William J. Broad, 'Drillers Find Lost World of Ancient Microbes', New York Times (4 October 1994), C1; Broad, 'Strange New Microbes Hint at Vast Subterranean World', ibid. (28 December 1994), C1.
70. R. John Parkes et al., 'Deep Bacterial Biosphere in Pacific Ocean Sediments', Nature, Vol. 371 (29 September 1994), 410-13; John Parkes and James Maxwell, 'Some Like it Hot (and Oily)', Nature, Vol. 365 (21 October 1993), 694-95; K.O. Stetter et al., 'Hyperthermophilic Archaea are Thriving in Deep North Sea and Alaskan Oil Reservoirs', ibid., 743-45; William J. Broad, 'Drillers Find Lost World of Ancient Microbes', New York Times (4 October 1994), C1; Broad, 'Strange New Microbes Hint at Vast Subterranean World', ibid. (28 December 1994), C1.
71. R. John Parkes et al., 'Deep Bacterial Biosphere in Pacific Ocean Sediments', Nature, Vol. 371 (29 September 1994), 410-13; John Parkes and James Maxwell, 'Some Like it Hot (and Oily)', Nature, Vol. 365 (21 October 1993), 694-95; K.O. Stetter et al., 'Hyperthermophilic Archaea are Thriving in Deep North Sea and Alaskan Oil Reservoirs', ibid., 743-45; William J. Broad, 'Drillers Find Lost World of Ancient Microbes', New York Times (4 October 1994), C1; Broad, 'Strange New Microbes Hint at Vast Subterranean World', ibid. (28 December 1994), C1.
72. Homer E. Le Grand, Drifting Continents and Shifting Theories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 86, 93. Similarly, the cold fusion controversy for a time looked like a disciplinary battle between physics and chemistry: see Collins & Pinch, op. cit. note 8, 74.
73. Homer E. Le Grand, Drifting Continents and Shifting Theories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 86, 93. Similarly, the cold fusion controversy for a time looked like a disciplinary battle between physics and chemistry: see Collins & Pinch, op. cit. note 8, 74.
74. A Workshop held at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, by the Gas Research Institute, an industry association, in order to discuss the abiogenic theory, reported 'an intensity of emotion and frustration of participants at discovering what they find to be compelling arguments simply not accepted by others': see Gregg Marland (ed.), 'Proceedings of A Workshop on the Origin of Natural Gas' (Chicago, IL: Gas Research Institute, 1984), A-ii.
75. Steven Soter is Gold's co-author on some scientific papers on the abiogenic theory. Collins's original joke, intended to show that communication requires common socialization, reads: Two gentlemen from the Indian subcontinent are overheard by a patronizing Englishman as they talk to one another on a bus. First Indian: I tell you it's 'woomb' - W-O-O-M-B. Second Indian: No, no, no, it's 'whoum' - W-H-O-U-M. First Indian: Certainly not Sir, but it could be 'whum' - W-H-U-M. Second Indian: No Sir, but perhaps it is 'whoomb' - W-H-O-O-M-B. Patronizing Englishman: Excuse me old chaps, couldn't help overhearing. Actually we spell it W-O-M-B - Quite simple really. Both Indians: Pardon me Sir, but have you ever heard an Indian elephant break wind? H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985), 23.
76. Karl R. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (New York: Basic Books, 1959), 277.
77. If the Siljan hole is not a crucial test, then I don't know what is. To employ Imre Lakatos's method of 'testing' Popper by his own criteria, the Siljan hole is thus a crucial test of Popper's notion of the crucial test: see Lakatos, The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1978), 123ff.
78. Osborne, op. cit. note 25, 53.
79. John R. Castanõ, 'Geochemical Evaluation of the Gravberg-1 Well', Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar, Vol. 114 (1992), 157.
80. Christopher Juhlin et al., Scientific Summary Report of the Deep Gas Drilling Project in the Siljan Ring Impact Structure (Älvkarleby, Sweden: Vattenfall, 1991), 157-57.
81. Juhlin et al., ibid., 157; Alan Jeffrey and Ian Kaplan, 'Asphaltene-like Material in Siljan Ring Well Suggests Mineralized Altered Drilling Fluid', Journal of Petroleum Technology, Vol. 41 (1989), 1262-65, 1311-14, at 1312; T. Gold, 'Response to the Article by I. Kaplan and A. Jeffrey', ibid, Vol. 42 (1990), 269; Jeffrey Kaplan and J.R. Castanõ, 'Analyses of Gases in the Gravberg-1 Well', in Anders Bodén and K. Gésta Eriksson (eds), Deep Drilling in Crystalline Bedrock, Vol. 1 (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1988), 134-39, at 137.
82. Juhlin et al., ibid., 157; Alan Jeffrey and Ian Kaplan, 'Asphaltene-like Material in Siljan Ring Well Suggests Mineralized Altered Drilling Fluid', Journal of Petroleum Technology, Vol. 41 (1989), 1262-65, 1311-14, at 1312; T. Gold, 'Response to the Article by I. Kaplan and A. Jeffrey', ibid, Vol. 42 (1990), 269; Jeffrey Kaplan and J.R. Castanõ, 'Analyses of Gases in the Gravberg-1 Well', in Anders Bodén and K. Gésta Eriksson (eds), Deep Drilling in Crystalline Bedrock, Vol. 1 (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1988), 134-39, at 137.
83. Juhlin et al., ibid., 157; Alan Jeffrey and Ian Kaplan, 'Asphaltene-like Material in Siljan Ring Well Suggests Mineralized Altered Drilling Fluid', Journal of Petroleum Technology, Vol. 41 (1989), 1262-65, 1311-14, at 1312; T. Gold, 'Response to the Article by I. Kaplan and A. Jeffrey', ibid, Vol. 42 (1990), 269; Jeffrey Kaplan and J.R. Castanõ, 'Analyses of Gases in the Gravberg-1 Well', in Anders Bodén and K. Gésta Eriksson (eds), Deep Drilling in Crystalline Bedrock, Vol. 1 (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1988), 134-39, at 137.
84. Juhlin et al., ibid., 157; Alan Jeffrey and Ian Kaplan, 'Asphaltene-like Material in Siljan Ring Well Suggests Mineralized Altered Drilling Fluid', Journal of Petroleum Technology, Vol. 41 (1989), 1262-65, 1311-14, at 1312; T. Gold, 'Response to the Article by I. Kaplan and A. Jeffrey', ibid, Vol. 42 (1990), 269; Jeffrey Kaplan and J.R. Castanõ, 'Analyses of Gases in the Gravberg-1 Well', in Anders Bodén and K. Gésta Eriksson (eds), Deep Drilling in Crystalline Bedrock, Vol. 1 (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1988), 134-39, at 137.
85. This is an example of Collins's 'experimenter's regress': the validity of the experiment can only be established by its yielding correct results, but correct results can only be obtained from a valid experiment. See Collins, op. cit. note 40, 89.
86. J.R. Castanõ, 'Geochemical Studies, Gravberg-1 Well, Sweden; Integration of Well Site and External Laboratory Analyses', in Bodén & Eriksson (eds), op. cit. note 47, 122-33, at 125.
87. Jeffrey & Kaplan, op. cit. note 46, 1262; Jeffrey, Kaplan & Castano, op. cit. note 46, 137; Juhlin et al., op. cit. note 45, 136.
88. Jeffrey & Kaplan, op. cit. note 46, 1262; Jeffrey, Kaplan & Castano, op. cit. note 46, 137; Juhlin et al., op. cit. note 45, 136.
89. Jeffrey & Kaplan, op. cit. note 46, 1262; Jeffrey, Kaplan & Castano, op. cit. note 46, 137; Juhlin et al., op. cit. note 45, 136.
90. The more 'transparent' a scientific instrument is, the easier it is for scientists to believe that data passes through it without distortion: see Simon Schaffer, 'Glass Works: Newton's Prisms and the Uses of Experiment', in David Gooding, Trevor Pinch and Schaffer (eds), The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 67-104.
91. Geoffrey Bowker found that drilling mud was 'a central site for negotiations among well-diggers, oil producers, geologists, and geophysicists', in his Science on the Run: Information Management and Industrial Geophysics at Schlumberger, 1920-1940 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994), 96; see also 67, 156, 167-68.
92. Geoffrey Bowker found that drilling mud was 'a central site for negotiations among well-diggers, oil producers, geologists, and geophysicists', in his Science on the Run: Information Management and Industrial Geophysics at Schlumberger, 1920-1940 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994), 96; see also 67, 156, 167-68.
93. Ala A. Aldahan, Jan Bergström, Bengt Collini and Carl-Olof Morfeldt, 'The Siljan Project: Locating a New Major Energy Resource', English translation of unpublished internal shareholders' report (Dala Deep Gas Company, Sweden, October 1992); Thomas Gold, 'Sweden's Siljan Ring Well Evaluated', Oil and Gas Journal (14 January 1991), 76-78; Lakatos, op. cit. note 42, 86 (original emphasis).
94. Ala A. Aldahan, Jan Bergström, Bengt Collini and Carl-Olof Morfeldt, 'The Siljan Project: Locating a New Major Energy Resource', English translation of unpublished internal shareholders' report (Dala Deep Gas Company, Sweden, October 1992); Thomas Gold, 'Sweden's Siljan Ring Well Evaluated', Oil and Gas Journal (14 January 1991), 76-78; Lakatos, op. cit. note 42, 86 (original emphasis).
95. Ala A. Aldahan, Jan Bergström, Bengt Collini and Carl-Olof Morfeldt, 'The Siljan Project: Locating a New Major Energy Resource', English translation of unpublished internal shareholders' report (Dala Deep Gas Company, Sweden, October 1992); Thomas Gold, 'Sweden's Siljan Ring Well Evaluated', Oil and Gas Journal (14 January 1991), 76-78; Lakatos, op. cit. note 42, 86 (original emphasis).
96. Ibid., 72 (original italics). See J.R. Castanõ, 'Prospects for Commercial Abiogenic Gas Production: Implications from the Siljan Ring Area, Sweden', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 133-54.
97. Ibid., 72 (original italics). See J.R. Castanõ, 'Prospects for Commercial Abiogenic Gas Production: Implications from the Siljan Ring Area, Sweden', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 133-54.
98. Peter Aldhous, 'Black Gold Causes a Stir', Nature, Vol. 353 (17 October 1991), 593.
99. Timothy M. Beardsley, 'Going for Gold', Scientific American (August 1988), 9.
100. In the cold fusion controversy, contamination of Pons and Fleishmann's tritium measurements also served as an inexhaustible resource for contesting their experimental results: see Collins & Pinch, op. cit. note 8, 71-72.
101. Bowker also found oil wells serving dual roles as scientific experiments (for Schlumberger) and commercial ventures (for drillers): see Bowker, op. cit. note 51, 31-36.
102. Some of the terminology used in the following discussion is borrowed from Bruno Latour, Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987).
103. Constant has shown that changes in drilling instrumentation over the course of the twentieth century helped construct knowledge about what was occurring underground in petroleum reservoirs: Edward W. Constant II, 'Cause or Consequence: Science, Technology, and Regulatory Change in the Oil Business in Texas, 1930-1975', Technology and Culture, Vol. 30 (1989), 426-55, at 432.
104. Also see Bowker, op. cit. note 51, 31-36.
105. The biogenesists thus employ Lakatos's second shrewd strategy, the 'reduction' of the abiogenic theory to the biogenic one: see Lakatos, op. cit. note 42, 72.
106. Similarly, in Vattenfall's official report, the issue is not whether abiogenic gas exists or not but whether it 'is a significant source of commercial gas': see Juhlin et al., op. cit. note 45, 10.
107. Osborne, op. cit. note 25, 45 (original emphasis). We might also liken it to the Duhem-Quine thesis, which holds that crucial experiments can always be neutralized by making adjustments in background knowledge, like allowing for abiogenic methane.
108. Lakatos, op. cit. note 42, 86 (original emphasis).
109. See, for instance, Wallace E. Pratt, 'Introduction', in Edgar Wesley Owen, Trek of the Oil Finders: A History of Exploration for Petroleum (Tulsa, OK: American Association of Petroleum Geologists [AAPG], 1975), xiii-xv; Constant, op. cit. note 59, 434-35, 446; Bowker, op. cit. note 51, 2, 156. Geologists had to struggle to conquer the coal industry as well. In a nineteenth-century controversy over the origin of coal the roles were reversed: the professional geologists and biogenesists were the mavericks, and the mining industry was committed to abiogenesis, primarily because abiogenesis supported more optimistic interpretations of the potential reserves in the Pennsylvania anthracite coal region: see Anthony F.C. Wallace, St Clair: A Nineteenth-Century Coal Town's Experience with a Disaster-Prone Industry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 1981), 200-15.
110. See, for instance, Wallace E. Pratt, 'Introduction', in Edgar Wesley Owen, Trek of the Oil Finders: A History of Exploration for Petroleum (Tulsa, OK: American Association of Petroleum Geologists [AAPG], 1975), xiii-xv; Constant, op. cit. note 59, 434-35, 446; Bowker, op. cit. note 51, 2, 156. Geologists had to struggle to conquer the coal industry as well. In a nineteenth-century controversy over the origin of coal the roles were reversed: the professional geologists and biogenesists were the mavericks, and the mining industry was committed to abiogenesis, primarily because abiogenesis supported more optimistic interpretations of the potential reserves in the Pennsylvania anthracite coal region: see Anthony F.C. Wallace, St Clair: A Nineteenth-Century Coal Town's Experience with a Disaster-Prone Industry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 1981), 200-15.
111. See, for instance, Wallace E. Pratt, 'Introduction', in Edgar Wesley Owen, Trek of the Oil Finders: A History of Exploration for Petroleum (Tulsa, OK: American Association of Petroleum Geologists [AAPG], 1975), xiii-xv; Constant, op. cit. note 59, 434-35, 446; Bowker, op. cit. note 51, 2, 156. Geologists had to struggle to conquer the coal industry as well. In a nineteenth-century controversy over the origin of coal the roles were reversed: the professional geologists and biogenesists were the mavericks, and the mining industry was committed to abiogenesis, primarily because abiogenesis supported more optimistic interpretations of the potential reserves in the Pennsylvania anthracite coal region: see Anthony F.C. Wallace, St Clair: A Nineteenth-Century Coal Town's Experience with a Disaster-Prone Industry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 1981), 200-15.
112. See, for instance, Wallace E. Pratt, 'Introduction', in Edgar Wesley Owen, Trek of the Oil Finders: A History of Exploration for Petroleum (Tulsa, OK: American Association of Petroleum Geologists [AAPG], 1975), xiii-xv; Constant, op. cit. note 59, 434-35, 446; Bowker, op. cit. note 51, 2, 156. Geologists had to struggle to conquer the coal industry as well. In a nineteenth-century controversy over the origin of coal the roles were reversed: the professional geologists and biogenesists were the mavericks, and the mining industry was committed to abiogenesis, primarily because abiogenesis supported more optimistic interpretations of the potential reserves in the Pennsylvania anthracite coal region: see Anthony F.C. Wallace, St Clair: A Nineteenth-Century Coal Town's Experience with a Disaster-Prone Industry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 1981), 200-15.
113. Wallace E. Pratt, 'Toward a Philosophy of Oil-Finding', Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 36 (1952), 2231-36, quote at 2236. This is what linguists call a 't-zero' - one of those aphorisms that can mean anything to anyone. To geologists it might mean that finding oil requires scientific knowledge. To wildcatters it might mean that finding oil requires instinct, or that one must first convince oneself that oil is 'down there'. To relativists it might mean that oil reservoirs are constructed in the social, as well as in the natural world. See Jack G. Elam, 'Creativity in Oil Exploration or, How to Find Oil and Gas Economically', in Norman H. Foster and Edward A. Beaumont (eds), Oil Is First Found in the Mind: The Philosophy of Exploration (Tulsa, OK: AAPG, 1992), 29-63; Lawrence W. Funkhouser, 'Petroleum Exploration - A Science, A Business , An Art', in ibid., 9-16; John A. Masters, 'Winning', in ibid., 173-77, and other essays in this volume for the exceptional resonance that Pratt's epigram has for petroleum geologists. Also see Everette De Golyer, 'Plea for Loose Thinking', AAPC Bulletin, Vol. 34 (1950), 1607-11; Parke A. Dickey, 'Oil Is Found with Ideas', Tulsa Geological Society Digest, Vol. 26 (1958), 84-101; William M. Davis, 'The Value of Outrageous Geological Hypotheses', Science Vol. 63 (7 May 1926), 463-68. On Pratt and Humble, see Henrietta M. Larson and Kenneth Wiggins Porter, History of Humble Oil and Refining Company: A Study in Industrial Growth (New York: Harper, 1959), 416-18.
114. Wallace E. Pratt, 'Toward a Philosophy of Oil-Finding', Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 36 (1952), 2231-36, quote at 2236. This is what linguists call a 't-zero' - one of those aphorisms that can mean anything to anyone. To geologists it might mean that finding oil requires scientific knowledge. To wildcatters it might mean that finding oil requires instinct, or that one must first convince oneself that oil is 'down there'. To relativists it might mean that oil reservoirs are constructed in the social, as well as in the natural world. See Jack G. Elam, 'Creativity in Oil Exploration or, How to Find Oil and Gas Economically', in Norman H. Foster and Edward A. Beaumont (eds), Oil Is First Found in the Mind: The Philosophy of Exploration (Tulsa, OK: AAPG, 1992), 29-63; Lawrence W. Funkhouser, 'Petroleum Exploration - A Science, A Business , An Art', in ibid., 9-16; John A. Masters, 'Winning', in ibid., 173-77, and other essays in this volume for the exceptional resonance that Pratt's epigram has for petroleum geologists. Also see Everette De Golyer, 'Plea for Loose Thinking', AAPC Bulletin, Vol. 34 (1950), 1607-11; Parke A. Dickey, 'Oil Is Found with Ideas', Tulsa Geological Society Digest, Vol. 26 (1958), 84-101; William M. Davis, 'The Value of Outrageous Geological Hypotheses', Science Vol. 63 (7 May 1926), 463-68. On Pratt and Humble, see Henrietta M. Larson and Kenneth Wiggins Porter, History of Humble Oil and Refining Company: A Study in Industrial Growth (New York: Harper, 1959), 416-18.
115. Wallace E. Pratt, 'Toward a Philosophy of Oil-Finding', Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 36 (1952), 2231-36, quote at 2236. This is what linguists call a 't-zero' - one of those aphorisms that can mean anything to anyone. To geologists it might mean that finding oil requires scientific knowledge. To wildcatters it might mean that finding oil requires instinct, or that one must first convince oneself that oil is 'down there'. To relativists it might mean that oil reservoirs are constructed in the social, as well as in the natural world. See Jack G. Elam, 'Creativity in Oil Exploration or, How to Find Oil and Gas Economically', in Norman H. Foster and Edward A. Beaumont (eds), Oil Is First Found in the Mind: The Philosophy of Exploration (Tulsa, OK: AAPG, 1992), 29-63; Lawrence W. Funkhouser, 'Petroleum Exploration - A Science, A Business , An Art', in ibid., 9-16; John A. Masters, 'Winning', in ibid., 173-77, and other essays in this volume for the exceptional resonance that Pratt's epigram has for petroleum geologists. Also see Everette De Golyer, 'Plea for Loose Thinking', AAPC Bulletin, Vol. 34 (1950), 1607-11; Parke A. Dickey, 'Oil Is Found with Ideas', Tulsa Geological Society Digest, Vol. 26 (1958), 84-101; William M. Davis, 'The Value of Outrageous Geological Hypotheses', Science Vol. 63 (7 May 1926), 463-68. On Pratt and Humble, see Henrietta M. Larson and Kenneth Wiggins Porter, History of Humble Oil and Refining Company: A Study in Industrial Growth (New York: Harper, 1959), 416-18.
116. Wallace E. Pratt, 'Toward a Philosophy of Oil-Finding', Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 36 (1952), 2231-36, quote at 2236. This is what linguists call a 't-zero' - one of those aphorisms that can mean anything to anyone. To geologists it might mean that finding oil requires scientific knowledge. To wildcatters it might mean that finding oil requires instinct, or that one must first convince oneself that oil is 'down there'. To relativists it might mean that oil reservoirs are constructed in the social, as well as in the natural world. See Jack G. Elam, 'Creativity in Oil Exploration or, How to Find Oil and Gas Economically', in Norman H. Foster and Edward A. Beaumont (eds), Oil Is First Found in the Mind: The Philosophy of Exploration (Tulsa, OK: AAPG, 1992), 29-63; Lawrence W. Funkhouser, 'Petroleum Exploration - A Science, A Business , An Art', in ibid., 9-16; John A. Masters, 'Winning', in ibid., 173-77, and other essays in this volume for the exceptional resonance that Pratt's epigram has for petroleum geologists. Also see Everette De Golyer, 'Plea for Loose Thinking', AAPC Bulletin, Vol. 34 (1950), 1607-11; Parke A. Dickey, 'Oil Is Found with Ideas', Tulsa Geological Society Digest, Vol. 26 (1958), 84-101; William M. Davis, 'The Value of Outrageous Geological Hypotheses', Science Vol. 63 (7 May 1926), 463-68. On Pratt and Humble, see Henrietta M. Larson and Kenneth Wiggins Porter, History of Humble Oil and Refining Company: A Study in Industrial Growth (New York: Harper, 1959), 416-18.
117. Wallace E. Pratt, 'Toward a Philosophy of Oil-Finding', Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 36 (1952), 2231-36, quote at 2236. This is what linguists call a 't-zero' - one of those aphorisms that can mean anything to anyone. To geologists it might mean that finding oil requires scientific knowledge. To wildcatters it might mean that finding oil requires instinct, or that one must first convince oneself that oil is 'down there'. To relativists it might mean that oil reservoirs are constructed in the social, as well as in the natural world. See Jack G. Elam, 'Creativity in Oil Exploration or, How to Find Oil and Gas Economically', in Norman H. Foster and Edward A. Beaumont (eds), Oil Is First Found in the Mind: The Philosophy of Exploration (Tulsa, OK: AAPG, 1992), 29-63; Lawrence W. Funkhouser, 'Petroleum Exploration - A Science, A Business , An Art', in ibid., 9-16; John A. Masters, 'Winning', in ibid., 173-77, and other essays in this volume for the exceptional resonance that Pratt's epigram has for petroleum geologists. Also see Everette De Golyer, 'Plea for Loose Thinking', AAPC Bulletin, Vol. 34 (1950), 1607-11; Parke A. Dickey, 'Oil Is Found with Ideas', Tulsa Geological Society Digest, Vol. 26 (1958), 84-101; William M. Davis, 'The Value of Outrageous Geological Hypotheses', Science Vol. 63 (7 May 1926), 463-68. On Pratt and Humble, see Henrietta M. Larson and Kenneth Wiggins Porter, History of Humble Oil and Refining Company: A Study in Industrial Growth (New York: Harper, 1959), 416-18.
118. Wallace E. Pratt, 'Toward a Philosophy of Oil-Finding', Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 36 (1952), 2231-36, quote at 2236. This is what linguists call a 't-zero' - one of those aphorisms that can mean anything to anyone. To geologists it might mean that finding oil requires scientific knowledge. To wildcatters it might mean that finding oil requires instinct, or that one must first convince oneself that oil is 'down there'. To relativists it might mean that oil reservoirs are constructed in the social, as well as in the natural world. See Jack G. Elam, 'Creativity in Oil Exploration or, How to Find Oil and Gas Economically', in Norman H. Foster and Edward A. Beaumont (eds), Oil Is First Found in the Mind: The Philosophy of Exploration (Tulsa, OK: AAPG, 1992), 29-63; Lawrence W. Funkhouser, 'Petroleum Exploration - A Science, A Business , An Art', in ibid., 9-16; John A. Masters, 'Winning', in ibid., 173-77, and other essays in this volume for the exceptional resonance that Pratt's epigram has for petroleum geologists. Also see Everette De Golyer, 'Plea for Loose Thinking', AAPC Bulletin, Vol. 34 (1950), 1607-11; Parke A. Dickey, 'Oil Is Found with Ideas', Tulsa Geological Society Digest, Vol. 26 (1958), 84-101; William M. Davis, 'The Value of Outrageous Geological Hypotheses', Science Vol. 63 (7 May 1926), 463-68. On Pratt and Humble, see Henrietta M. Larson and Kenneth Wiggins Porter, History of Humble Oil and Refining Company: A Study in Industrial Growth (New York: Harper, 1959), 416-18.
119. Wallace E. Pratt, 'Toward a Philosophy of Oil-Finding', Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 36 (1952), 2231-36, quote at 2236. This is what linguists call a 't-zero' - one of those aphorisms that can mean anything to anyone. To geologists it might mean that finding oil requires scientific knowledge. To wildcatters it might mean that finding oil requires instinct, or that one must first convince oneself that oil is 'down there'. To relativists it might mean that oil reservoirs are constructed in the social, as well as in the natural world. See Jack G. Elam, 'Creativity in Oil Exploration or, How to Find Oil and Gas Economically', in Norman H. Foster and Edward A. Beaumont (eds), Oil Is First Found in the Mind: The Philosophy of Exploration (Tulsa, OK: AAPG, 1992), 29-63; Lawrence W. Funkhouser, 'Petroleum Exploration - A Science, A Business , An Art', in ibid., 9-16; John A. Masters, 'Winning', in ibid., 173-77, and other essays in this volume for the exceptional resonance that Pratt's epigram has for petroleum geologists. Also see Everette De Golyer, 'Plea for Loose Thinking', AAPC Bulletin, Vol. 34 (1950), 1607-11; Parke A. Dickey, 'Oil Is Found with Ideas', Tulsa Geological Society Digest, Vol. 26 (1958), 84-101; William M. Davis, 'The Value of Outrageous Geological Hypotheses', Science Vol. 63 (7 May 1926), 463-68. On Pratt and Humble, see Henrietta M. Larson and Kenneth Wiggins Porter, History of Humble Oil and Refining Company: A Study in Industrial Growth (New York: Harper, 1959), 416-18.
120. Wallace E. Pratt, 'Toward a Philosophy of Oil-Finding', Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 36 (1952), 2231-36, quote at 2236. This is what linguists call a 't-zero' - one of those aphorisms that can mean anything to anyone. To geologists it might mean that finding oil requires scientific knowledge. To wildcatters it might mean that finding oil requires instinct, or that one must first convince oneself that oil is 'down there'. To relativists it might mean that oil reservoirs are constructed in the social, as well as in the natural world. See Jack G. Elam, 'Creativity in Oil Exploration or, How to Find Oil and Gas Economically', in Norman H. Foster and Edward A. Beaumont (eds), Oil Is First Found in the Mind: The Philosophy of Exploration (Tulsa, OK: AAPG, 1992), 29-63; Lawrence W. Funkhouser, 'Petroleum Exploration - A Science, A Business , An Art', in ibid., 9-16; John A. Masters, 'Winning', in ibid., 173-77, and other essays in this volume for the exceptional resonance that Pratt's epigram has for petroleum geologists. Also see Everette De Golyer, 'Plea for Loose Thinking', AAPC Bulletin, Vol. 34 (1950), 1607-11; Parke A. Dickey, 'Oil Is Found with Ideas', Tulsa Geological Society Digest, Vol. 26 (1958), 84-101; William M. Davis, 'The Value of Outrageous Geological Hypotheses', Science Vol. 63 (7 May 1926), 463-68. On Pratt and Humble, see Henrietta M. Larson and Kenneth Wiggins Porter, History of Humble Oil and Refining Company: A Study in Industrial Growth (New York: Harper, 1959), 416-18.
121. Roger M. Olien and Diana Davids Olien, Wildcatters: Texas Independent Oilmen (Austin, TX: Texas Monthly Press, 1984).
122. Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 82-83.
123. Ibid.
124. Ibid., 82-83, 302. Also see Michel T. Halbouty, 'Reflections After 62 Years of Exploration', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 803.
125. Ibid., 82-83, 302. Also see Michel T. Halbouty, 'Reflections After 62 Years of Exploration', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 803.
126. Olien & Olien, op. cit. note 67, 18.
127. Owen, op. cit. note 65, 1577.
128. Yergin, op. cit. note 68, 669.
129. Olien & Olien, op. cit. note 67, 24.
130. Yergin, op. cit. note 68, 668.
131. Mendeleev, op. cit. note 2, 411, anticipated this argument.
132. Yergin, op. cit. note 68, 52, 83, 281, 194.
133. Ibid., 52. It is, of course, unfair to portray all geologists as armchair experts. Professional geologists have varied widely in terms of how much they 'get dirty', and they have usually earned respect from miners accordingly: see David J. Krause, 'Testing a Tradition: Douglass Houghton and the Native Copper of Lake Superior', Isis, Vol. 80 (1989), 622-39. Geologists have never fully resolved the tension between their dual roles as 'gentleman scientists' and rough, avaricious miners: see Michael Shortland, 'Darkness Visible: Underground Culture in the Golden Age of Geology', History of Science, Vol. 32 (1994), 1-61; Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985).
134. Ibid., 52. It is, of course, unfair to portray all geologists as armchair experts. Professional geologists have varied widely in terms of how much they 'get dirty', and they have usually earned respect from miners accordingly: see David J. Krause, 'Testing a Tradition: Douglass Houghton and the Native Copper of Lake Superior', Isis, Vol. 80 (1989), 622-39. Geologists have never fully resolved the tension between their dual roles as 'gentleman scientists' and rough, avaricious miners: see Michael Shortland, 'Darkness Visible: Underground Culture in the Golden Age of Geology', History of Science, Vol. 32 (1994), 1-61; Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985).
135. Ibid., 52. It is, of course, unfair to portray all geologists as armchair experts. Professional geologists have varied widely in terms of how much they 'get dirty', and they have usually earned respect from miners accordingly: see David J. Krause, 'Testing a Tradition: Douglass Houghton and the Native Copper of Lake Superior', Isis, Vol. 80 (1989), 622-39. Geologists have never fully resolved the tension between their dual roles as 'gentleman scientists' and rough, avaricious miners: see Michael Shortland, 'Darkness Visible: Underground Culture in the Golden Age of Geology', History of Science, Vol. 32 (1994), 1-61; Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985).
136. Ibid., 52. It is, of course, unfair to portray all geologists as armchair experts. Professional geologists have varied widely in terms of how much they 'get dirty', and they have usually earned respect from miners accordingly: see David J. Krause, 'Testing a Tradition: Douglass Houghton and the Native Copper of Lake Superior', Isis, Vol. 80 (1989), 622-39. Geologists have never fully resolved the tension between their dual roles as 'gentleman scientists' and rough, avaricious miners: see Michael Shortland, 'Darkness Visible: Underground Culture in the Golden Age of Geology', History of Science, Vol. 32 (1994), 1-61; Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985).
137. Quoted in Yergin, op. cit. note 68, 52. As early as 1889, Mendeleev found himself combating rumours of the imminent exhaustion of the Caucasian oil fields: D. Mendeleev, 'The Present Position and Prospects of the Caucasian Petroleum Industry', Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 8 (1889), 753-57. On the constant state of crisis in the fossil fuel industries, see Jean-Claude Debeir, Jean-Paul Deléage and Daniel Hémery, In the Servitude of Power: Energy and Civilization through the Ages (London: Zed Books, 1991), 112-33.
138. Quoted in Yergin, op. cit. note 68, 52. As early as 1889, Mendeleev found himself combating rumours of the imminent exhaustion of the Caucasian oil fields: D. Mendeleev, 'The Present Position and Prospects of the Caucasian Petroleum Industry', Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 8 (1889), 753-57. On the constant state of crisis in the fossil fuel industries, see Jean-Claude Debeir, Jean-Paul Deléage and Daniel Hémery, In the Servitude of Power: Energy and Civilization through the Ages (London: Zed Books, 1991), 112-33.
139. Quoted in Yergin, op. cit. note 68, 52. As early as 1889, Mendeleev found himself combating rumours of the imminent exhaustion of the Caucasian oil fields: D. Mendeleev, 'The Present Position and Prospects of the Caucasian Petroleum Industry', Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 8 (1889), 753-57. On the constant state of crisis in the fossil fuel industries, see Jean-Claude Debeir, Jean-Paul Deléage and Daniel Hémery, In the Servitude of Power: Energy and Civilization through the Ages (London: Zed Books, 1991), 112-33.
140. David Howell, quoted in Brown, op. cit. note 30, 7.
141. In Australia, for example, government officials and oil promoters cast the necessity of finding indigenous petroleum as a matter of national self-determination. Disparaging the opinions of 'outside experts', Australian oil promoters treated oil-finding as a simple question of will. After decades of disappointment, Australia did eventually develop an indigenous oil industry in the 1960s. See Rick Wilkinson, Where God Never Trod: Australia's Oil Explorers Across Two Centuries (Balmain, NSW: David Ell, 1991), 88, 102.
142. Ian I. Mitroff, 'Norms and Counter-Norms in a Select Group of the Apollo Moon Scientists: A Case Study of the Ambivalence of Scientists', American Sociological Review, Vol. 39 (1974), 579-95, at 586.
143. We might consider here Augustine Brannigan's parallel between geographic and scientific acts of discovery. Depending on the account, Christopher Columbus may have been neither geographically informed nor the first European to reach the shores of America. But tenacity and good publicity are qualities even Columbus's detractors will grant him. Whether geographic or scientific, acts of discovery require tenacity and self-promotion. Discoveries of oil fields might be considered either geographic or scientific. Like Columbus, 'Colonel' Edwin Drake, who hit Pennsylvania crude in 1859, 'discovered' something that was already there, something that non-Europeans had been using for thousands of years. Like Columbus, Drake had little idea what he had discovered. Gold is explicitly trying to effect a 'discovery' that is at once geographic (hitherto unknown oil fields) and scientific. See A. Brannigan, The Social Basis of Scientific Discoveries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
144. Mitroff, op. cit. note 82, 588-89; I.I. Mitroff, The Subjective Side of Science: A Philosophical Inquiry into the Psychology of the Apollo Moon Scientists (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1974), 66.
145. Mitroff, op. cit. note 82, 588-89; I.I. Mitroff, The Subjective Side of Science: A Philosophical Inquiry into the Psychology of the Apollo Moon Scientists (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1974), 66.
146. J.P. Getty, quoted by Jim Fisk and Robert Barron, The Official MBA Handbook of Great Business Quotations (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984), 125.
147. Martin Scholl, quoted in Brown, op. cit. note 30, 7. For further sociological record of Gold's committed character and his tendency to become easily frustrated with those who are not immediately convinced by his ideas, see David O. Edge and Michael J. Mulkay, Astronomy Transformed: The Emergence of Radio Astronomy in Britain (New York: John Wiley, 1976), 97, 155.
148. Martin Scholl, quoted in Brown, op. cit. note 30, 7. For further sociological record of Gold's committed character and his tendency to become easily frustrated with those who are not immediately convinced by his ideas, see David O. Edge and Michael J. Mulkay, Astronomy Transformed: The Emergence of Radio Astronomy in Britain (New York: John Wiley, 1976), 97, 155.
149. Yergin, op. cit. note 68, 84.
150. Elam, op. cit. note 66, 38.
151. Bruno Latour, 'Give Me a Laboratory and I Will Raise the World!', in Karin Knorr-Cetina and Michael Mulkay (eds), Science Observed (London: Sage, 1983), 141-70.
152. 'Poor-boy' operators in Texas were often reduced to paying their labourers with shares in the well: see Olien & Olien, op. cit. note 67, 70-71.
153. I am alluding here to the inversions employed by Bruno Latour, op. cit. note 58, 1-17.
154. Gold, Power from the Earth, op. cit. note 35, 173-74; Gold, 'Origin of Methane', op. cit. note 35, 78; Robert Hefner argues that 'as natural gas continues to increase in value to the economy and gain an increasing share of the energy market, we can expect an acceleration of technological innovation, at all stages of natural gas production, from exploration to end use': see R.A. Hefner III, 'New Thinking About Natural Gas', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 807-30, quote at 819.
155. Gold, Power from the Earth, op. cit. note 35, 173-74; Gold, 'Origin of Methane', op. cit. note 35, 78; Robert Hefner argues that 'as natural gas continues to increase in value to the economy and gain an increasing share of the energy market, we can expect an acceleration of technological innovation, at all stages of natural gas production, from exploration to end use': see R.A. Hefner III, 'New Thinking About Natural Gas', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 807-30, quote at 819.
156. Gold, Power from the Earth, op. cit. note 35, 173-74; Gold, 'Origin of Methane', op. cit. note 35, 78; Robert Hefner argues that 'as natural gas continues to increase in value to the economy and gain an increasing share of the energy market, we can expect an acceleration of technological innovation, at all stages of natural gas production, from exploration to end use': see R.A. Hefner III, 'New Thinking About Natural Gas', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 807-30, quote at 819.
157. How much petroleum there is 'in the world' is a negotiated 'fact'; it is not simply observed. See Gary Bowden, 'The Social Construction of Validity in Estimates of US Crude Oil Reserves', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 15 (1935), 207-40; Michael Aaron Dennis, 'Drilling for Dollars: The Making of US Petroleum Reserve Estimates, 1921-25', ibid., 241-66; Constant, op. cit. note 59, 431-35; Thomas J. Woods, 'How Ultimate is Ultimate Gas Recovery', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 869-76, at 875; Hefner, op. cit. note 92, 819.
158. How much petroleum there is 'in the world' is a negotiated 'fact'; it is not simply observed. See Gary Bowden, 'The Social Construction of Validity in Estimates of US Crude Oil Reserves', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 15 (1935), 207-40; Michael Aaron Dennis, 'Drilling for Dollars: The Making of US Petroleum Reserve Estimates, 1921-25', ibid., 241-66; Constant, op. cit. note 59, 431-35; Thomas J. Woods, 'How Ultimate is Ultimate Gas Recovery', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 869-76, at 875; Hefner, op. cit. note 92, 819.
159. How much petroleum there is 'in the world' is a negotiated 'fact'; it is not simply observed. See Gary Bowden, 'The Social Construction of Validity in Estimates of US Crude Oil Reserves', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 15 (1935), 207-40; Michael Aaron Dennis, 'Drilling for Dollars: The Making of US Petroleum Reserve Estimates, 1921-25', ibid., 241-66; Constant, op. cit. note 59, 431-35; Thomas J. Woods, 'How Ultimate is Ultimate Gas Recovery', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 869-76, at 875; Hefner, op. cit. note 92, 819.
160. How much petroleum there is 'in the world' is a negotiated 'fact'; it is not simply observed. See Gary Bowden, 'The Social Construction of Validity in Estimates of US Crude Oil Reserves', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 15 (1935), 207-40; Michael Aaron Dennis, 'Drilling for Dollars: The Making of US Petroleum Reserve Estimates, 1921-25', ibid., 241-66; Constant, op. cit. note 59, 431-35; Thomas J. Woods, 'How Ultimate is Ultimate Gas Recovery', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 869-76, at 875; Hefner, op. cit. note 92, 819.
161. How much petroleum there is 'in the world' is a negotiated 'fact'; it is not simply observed. See Gary Bowden, 'The Social Construction of Validity in Estimates of US Crude Oil Reserves', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 15 (1935), 207-40; Michael Aaron Dennis, 'Drilling for Dollars: The Making of US Petroleum Reserve Estimates, 1921-25', ibid., 241-66; Constant, op. cit. note 59, 431-35; Thomas J. Woods, 'How Ultimate is Ultimate Gas Recovery', in Howell (ed.), op. cit. note 35, 869-76, at 875; Hefner, op. cit. note 92, 819.