Culture, power, and place: The new landscapes of east asian regionalism

American Historical Review

Volumn 104, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 1183-1201

  Wigen, Karen ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0012242353     PISSN: 00028762     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2649566     Document Type: Article

References (211)

1. Recent collections on identity and regionalism in China include David S. G. Goodman and Gerald Segal, eds., China Deconstructs: Politics, Trade and Regionalism (London, 1994);
2. Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim, eds., China's Quest for National Identity (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993);
3. David Shambaugh, ed., Greater China: The Next Superpower? (New York, 1995);
4. Tu Wei-ming, ed., China in Transformation (Cambridge, Mass., 1993);
5. Tu Wei-ming, ed., The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese, Today (Stanford, Calif., 1994);
6. Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini, eds., Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modem Chinese Transnationalism (New York, 1997).
7. For a thoughtful analysis of a geographical category that informs many of these collections, see Harry Harding, "The Concept of 'Greater China': Themes, Variations and Reservations," China Quarterly 136 (December 1993): 660-84.
8. For sociological analyses of regionalism in contemporary South Korea, see Eui-Young Yu, "Regionalism in the South Korean Power Structure,"
9. in Eui-Young Yu and Terry R. Kandal, eds., The Korean Peninsula in the Changing World Order (Los Angeles, 1993), 123-44;
10. and Byong-Je Jon, "Regionalism and Regional Conflict in Korea,"
11. in Kim Kyong-Dong and Su-Hoon Lee, eds., Asia HI the 21st Century: Challenges and Prospects (Seoul, 1990), 182-95.
12. For a sample of the new "off-center" perspectives in Japanese history, see Donald Denoon, et al., eds., Multicultural Japan: Palaeolithic to Postmodern (Cambridge, 1996).
13. Kimura Motoi, "Kyodoshi, chihoshi, chiikishi kenkyû no rekishi to kadai," in
14. Asao Naohiro, et al., eds., Nihon tsushi, betswnaki 2, Chiikishi kenkyu no genjo to kadai (Tokyo, 1994), 3-32.
15. Despite recent interest among sociologists and political scientists in the regional preferences and prejudices that mark Korean voting and employment patterns, cultural homogeneity across the peninsula is often assumed, and sometimes flatly asserted. For a critical discussion of this tendency, see Roy Richard Grinker, "Mourning the Nation: Ruins of the North in Seoul," positions: east asia cultures critique 3 (Spring 1995): 192-223, esp. 197-98.
16. For a fuller discussion and references, see notes 43 through 45 below.
17. For recent discussions of the east/west division in Japan, see Fukuda Ajio, "Yashiki to ie," in Tsukamoto Manabu, ed., Nihon no Kinsei, Vol. 8,
18. Mura no seikatsn bunka (Tokyo, 1992), 41-72;
19. Aoki Michio, ed., Nihon no Kinsei, Vol. 17,
20. Higashi to nishi, Edo to kamigata (Tokyo, 1994);
21. and Kokiiritsn Minzokiigaku Hakubutsiikan Kenkyu Hokokii 52 (1993), a special issue on Japanese regional culture.
22. One early exception is Gilbert Rozman, Urban Networks in Ch'ing China and Tokugawa Japan (Princeton, N.J., 1973).
23. For a more extensive discussion of core-periphery models in the Tokugawa field, see Karen Wigen, "The Geographical Imagination in Early Modern Japanese History: Retrospect and Prospect," Journal of Asian Studies 51 (February 1992): 3-29.
24. G. William Skinner, ed., The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford, Calif., 1977).
25. '' It is seldom noted that the resulting regional-systems model is conceptualized in more exclusively economic terms than is the central-place model that Skinner was developing at roughly the same time. Whereas China's urban hierarchy is theorized as a joint product of administrative fiats and marketing functions, the former are seen as largely irrelevant to the shaping of the regional map, whose contours are thus purported to be both more natural and more durable.
26. The periodization theory, as well as the most compact and comprehensive statement of the regional-systems model, may be found in G. William Skinner, "Presidential Address: The Structure of Chinese History," Journal of Asian Studies 44 (May 1985): 271-92.
27. For a more recent iteration, see Skinner's introduction to Sow-Theng Leong, Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin, und Their Neighbors, Tim Wright, éd. (Stanford, Calif., 1997), 1-18.
28. Although macroregional maps of the sort delineated by Skinner for China have never been published for Japan, Skinner himself convened a team of Japanese and American scholars to apply his framework to the Nôbi region in central Honshu. Skinner's map of Nöbi is reprinted, and his regional model critiqued, in Iwahashi Masaru, "Chihö keizai kôzô no chirigaku-'köki Nöbi chihöhen' no bunseki," in Shinbô Hiroshi and Saito Osamu, eds., Iwanami Nihon Keizaishi, Vol. 2, Kindai seiche no taido (Tokyo, 1989), 219-66.
29. Richard Slotkin, Gimfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1992), 5. I am indebted to Louise Young for bringing this passage to my attention.
30. Marcia Yonemoto, for instance, shows how even the driest depictions of the physical landscape of Tokugawa Japan-whether in maps, travel writing, or popular fiction-were deeply inscribed with cultural values, fusing local sentiments with a more placeless literati elitism. Yonemoto, "Mapping Culture in Eighteenth-Century Japan" (PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1995).
31. Work in this genre is already extensive, and numerous examples are cited in the survey that follows. For one provocative meditation on this approach, see Emily Honig, Creating Chinese Ethnicity: Snbei People in Shanghai, 1850-1980 (New Haven, Conn., 1992).
32. Examples include Kenneth Pomerantz, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853-1937 (Berkeley, Calif., 1993);
33. and Karen Wigen, The Making of a Japanese Periphery, 1750-1920 (Berkeley, 1995).
34. Thus Jeffrey C. Kinkley, for instance, writes that "the frontier situation reveals both the genius and the limitations of Skinner's seminal core/periphery dichotomy." The Odyssey of Shen Cong\ven (Stanford, Calif., 1987), 290, n. 21.
35. For related responses to Skinner's regional-systems model, see Barbara E. Ward, "Regional Operas and Their Audiences: Evidence from Hong Kong," in David Johnson, et al., eds., Popular Culture in Late Imperial China (Berkeley, Calif., 1985);
36. R. Keith Schoppa, "Contours of Revolutionary Change in a Chinese County, 1900-1950," Journal of Asian Studies 51 (November 1992): 770-96;
37. Schoppa, Blood Road: The Mystery of Shen Dingyi in Revolutionary China (Berkeley, 1995), 6;
38. Helen F. Siu, "Recycling Tradition: Culture, History, and Political Economy in the Chrysanthemum Festivals of South China," Comparative Studies in Society and History 32 (October 1990): 765-94, esp. 786-90;
39. Helen R. Chauncey, Schoolliouse Politicians: Locality and State during the Chinese Republic (Honolulu, 1992), 28, 47;
40. Wen-hsin Yeh, Provincial Passages: Culture, Space, and the Origins of Chinese Communism (Berkeley, 1996), 262, n. 3;
41. Jonathan N. Lipman, "Hyphenated Chinese: Sino-Muslim Identity in Modern China," in Gail Hershatter, et al.', eds.,
42. Remapping China: Fissures in Historical Terrain (Stanford, 1996), 97-112, 100;
43. Jeffrey Wasserstrom, "Comparing 'Incomparable' Cities: Postmodern L.A. and Old Shanghai," Contention 5 (Spring 1996): 69-90, 87;
44. and Helen F. Siu and David Faure, "Conclusion: History and Anthropology," in Faure and Siu, eds., Down to Earth: The Territorial Bond in South China (Stanford, 1995), 209-24, esp. 217-18.
45. I am indebted to Donald Nonini for this formulation. An extended case for this approach is made by Bryna Goodman in her recent book, Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853-1937 (Berkeley, Calif., 1995).
46. See also Emily Honig, Sisters and Strangers: Women in the Shanghai Cotton Mills, 1919-1949 (Stanford, Calif., 1986).
47. I am indebted to an anonymous reader for this observation.
48. David S. G. Goodman, "The Politics of Regionalism: Economic Development, Conflict and Negotiation," in Goodman and Segal, China Deconstructs, 1-20, 16.
49. Susan Mann, Precious Records: Women in China's Long Eighteenth Century (Stanford, Calif., 1997), 221;
50. Yeh, Provincial Passages, 47.
51. On the fifteenth-century origins of this phenomenon, see Katherine Carlitz, "Shrines, Governing-Class Identity, and the Cult'of Widow Fidelity in Mid-Ming Jiangnan," Journal of Asian Studies 56 (August 1997): 612-40.
52. Pamela Kyle Crossley, The Manchus (Cambridge, Mass., 1997).
53. Mann, Precious Records, 44, 212-16.
54. William T. Rowe, "Education and Empire in Southwest China: Ch'en Hung-mou in Yunnan, 1733-38," in Alexander Woodside and Benjamin A. Elman, eds., Education and Society in Late Imperial China (Berkeley, Calif., 1994), 417-57.
55. Evelyn S. Rawski argues that late imperial China enjoyed greater cultural integration than did early modern France, due to greater diffusion of literacy skills, greater possibilities for upward mobility through education, and less separation between town and village. Rawski, "Problems and Prospects,"
56. in Johnson, Popular Culture in Late Imperial China, 399-417.
57. See also Rawski, "A Historian's Approach to Chinese Death Ritual," in James L. Watson and Evelyn S. Rawski, eds., Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China (Berkeley, Calif., 1988), 20-34.
58. Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers (Seattle, 1995);
59. John E. Herman, "Empire in the Southwest: Early Qing Reforms to the Native Chieftain System," Journal of Asian Studies 56 (February 1997): 47-74.
60. John Fitzgerald, " 'Reports of My Death Have Been Greatly Exaggerated': The History of the Death of China," in Goodman and Segal, China Deconstructs, 21-58, 28.
61. For conflicting views of this process, see James L. Watson, "Standardizing the Gods: The Promotion of T'ien Hou ('Empress of Heaven') along the South China Coast, 960-1960,"
62. in Johnson, Popular Culture in Late Imperial China, 292-324; and
63. Michael Szonyi, "The Illusion of Standardizing the Gods: The Cult of the Five Emperors in Late Imperial China," Journal of Asian Studies 56 (February 1997): 113-35.
64. Prasenjit Duara analyzes a similar dynamic in "Superscribing Symbols: The Myth of Guandi, Chinese God of War," Journal of Asian Studies 47 (November 1988): 778-95.
65. This process is brilliantly documented in Leong, Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History, 31-40.
66. John Robert Shepherd, Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier 1600-1800 (Stanford, Calif., 1993), 386-87.
67. Piper Rae Gaubatz, Beyond the Great Wall: Urban Form and Transformation on the Chinese Frontiers (Stanford, Calif., 1996), 23.
68. For a fascinating study of multicultural frontier dynamics from the perspective of the earlier Tanguts, see Ruth W. Dunnell, The Great State of Wliite and High: Buddhism and State Formation in Eleventh-Century Xia (Honolulu, 1996).
69. Yeh, Provincial Passages, 46.
70. For a critical overview of the literature on native-place networks, see Emily Honig, "Native Place and the Making of Chinese Ethnicity,"
71. in Hershatter, Remapping China, 143-55.
72. See also Linda Cooke Johnson, ed., Cities ofJiangnan in Late Imperial China (Albany, N.Y., 1993).
73. Leong, Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History, 40;
74. Shepherd, Statecraft and Political Economy, 526, n. 107;
75. Helen F. Siu and David Faure, "Conclusion: History and Anthropology," in
76. Faure and Siu, Down to Earth, 209-24.
77. Evelyn S. Rawski, "Presidential Address: Reenvisioning the Qing; The Significance of the Qing Period in Chinese History," Journal of Asian Studies 55 (November 1996): 829-50;
78. Rawski, The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions (Berkeley, Calif., 1998). For a trenchant rejoinder to the multiculturalist thesis,
79. see Ping-Ti Ho, "In Defense of Sinicization: A Rebuttal of Evelyn Rawski's 'Reenvisioning the Qing,' " Journal of Asian Studies 57 (February 1998): 123-55.
80. For instance, see Kwan-Man Bun, "Mapping the Hinterland: Treaty Ports and Regional Analysis in Modern China,"
81. in Hershatter, Remapping China, 181-93;
82. Antonia Finnane, "The Origins of Prejudice: The Malintegration of Subei in Late Imperial China," Comparative Studies in Society and History 35 (April 1993): 211-38;
83. Yeh, Provincial Passages, 52-56.
84. On the role of Christian missions and Islamic schools in fostering militant regional identities in southwestern China in the later 1800s, see Alexander Woodside and Benjamin A. Elman, "Afterword: The Expansion of Education in Ch'ing China,"
85. in Woodside and Elman, Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 525-60;
86. Siu-woo Cheung, "Millenarianism, Christian Movements, and Ethnic Change among the Miao in Southwest China,"
87. in Harrell, Cultural Encounters, 217-47.
88. Pomerantz, Making of a Hinterland, 15, 275.
89. Elizabeth J. Perry, Shanghai on Strike: The Politics of Chinese Labor (Stanford, Calif., 1993), 30.
90. Bryna Goodman, "The Locality as Microcosm of the Nation? Native Place Networks and Early Urban Nationalism in China," Modern China 21 (1995): 387-419;
91. Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation.
92. Arif Dirlik, The Origins of Chinese Communism (Oxford, 1989), chap. 8;
93. Dirlik, Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution (Berkeley, Calif., 1991), 14-18;
94. Ming K. Chan, "A Turning Point in the Modern Chinese Revolution: The Historical Significance of the Canton Decade, 1917-27,"
95. in Hershatter, Remapping China, 224-41;
96. Antonia Finnane, "A Place in the Nation: Yangzhou and the Idle Talk Controversy of 1934," Journal of Asian Studies 53 (November 1994): 1150-74;
97. Yeh, Provincial Passages, 208.
98. Yeh, Provincial Passages, 5.
99. Mary S. Erbaugh, "The Secret History of the Hakkas: The Chinese Revolution as a Hakka Enterprise," China Quarterly 132 (December 1992): 937-68.
100. See also Leong, Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History, 85.
101. The phrase is from Celia Applegate, A Nation of Provincials: The German Idea of Heimat (Berkeley, Calif., 1990). .
102. Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modem China (Chicago, 1995), chap. 6;
103. Arthur Waldron, "Warlordism versus Federalism: The Revival of a Debate?" China Quarterly 121 (March 1990): 116-28;
104. Fitzgerald, "'Reports of My Death Have Been Greatly Exaggerated,' " 21-58.
105. Lucien Miller, "General Introduction," in Miller, ed., South of the Clouds: Tales from Yunnan (Seattle, 1994), 13.
106. Chang-tai Hung, Going to the People: Chinese Intellectuals and Folk Literature 1918-1937 (Cambridge, Mass., 1985).
107. On the process of reviewing claims to minority status under the early revolutionary regime, see the essays by Charles McKhann, Norma Diamond, and Shelley Rigger in Harrell, Cultural Encounters.
108. See also Stevan Harrell, "Ethnicity, Local Interests, and the State: Yi Communities in Southwest China," Comparative Studies in Society and History 32 (July 1990): 515-48.
109. Shih-chung Hsieh, "On the Dynamics of Tai/Dai-Lue Ethnicity,"
110. in Harrell, Cultural Encounters, 301-28;
111. Dru C. Gladney, Muslim Chinese (Cambridge, Mass., 1991).
112. On the latter, see Emily Honig, "Invisible Inequalities: The Status of Subei People in Contemporary Shanghai," China Quarterly 122 (June 1990): 273-92;
113. and Elizabeth J. Perry, "Labor's Battle for Political Space: The Role of Worker Associations in Contemporary China," in Deborah S. Davis, et al., eds., Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge, 1995), 302-25.
114. Dru Gladney, "Ethnic Identity in China: The New Politics of Difference," in William A. Joseph, ed., China Briefing 1994 (Boulder, Colo., 1994), 171-92;
115. David S. G. Goodman and Feng Chongyi, "Guangdong: Greater Hong Kong and the New Regionalist Future,"
116. in Goodman and Segal, China Deconstructs, 177-201;
117. Vivienne Shue, "State Sprawl: The Regulatory State and Social Life in a Small Chinese City,"
118. in Davis, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China, 90-112, esp. 95.
119. Almaz Khan, "Chinggis Khan, From Imperial Ancestor to Ethnic Hero,"
120. in Harrell,'Cultural Encounters, 248-77.
121. Kenneth Dean, "Topologies of Power: Regional Ritual Systems in Southeast China," positions: east asia cultures critique (forthcoming);
122. Norma Diamond, "Defining the Miao,"
123. in Harrell, Cultural Encounters, 92-116.
124. On the continuing search for cultural "counter-cores" in the literature of China's peripheries, see Kinkley, Odyssey ofShen Congn-en, 16, 278;
125. Kam Louie, ed., Strange Tales from Strange Lands: Stories by Zheng Wanlong (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993);
126. and Leo Ou-fan Lee, "On the Margins of the Chinese Discourse: Some Personal Thoughts on the Cultural Meaning of the Periphery," in
127. Tu, Living Tree, 221-43.
128. On the contemporary reordering of the social meanings of space, see Helen F. Siu, "Cultural Identity and the Politics of Difference in South China,"
129. in Tu, China in Transformation, 19-43; Mayfair
130. Mei-Hui Yang, "Mass Media and Transnational Subjectivity in Shanghai: Notes on (Re)cosmopolitanism in a Chinese Metropolis,"
131. in Ong and Nonini, Ungrounded Empires, 287-319;
132. and Xin Liu, "Space, Mobility, and Flexibility: Chinese Villagers and Scholars Negotiate Power at Home and Abroad,"
133. in Ong and Nonini, Ungrounded Empires, 91-114.
134. Jing Wang, "Public Culture and Popular Culture: Metropolitan China at the Turn of the Century," positions: east asia cultures critique (forthcoming).
135. See also Stevan Harrell, "Jeeping against Maoism," positions: east asia cultures critique 2 (Fall 1994): 177-249.
136. Edward Freidman, "A Failed Chinese Modernity," in
137. Tu," China in Transformation, 1-18;
138. Freidman, "Reconstructing China's National Identity: A Southern Alternative to Mao-Era Antiimperialist Nationalism," Journal of Asian Studies 53 (February 1994): 67-91.
139. Tu Wei-Ming, "Cultural China: The Periphery as the Center," in
140. Tu, Living Tree, 1-34.
141. Arif Dirlik, "Critical Reflections on 'Chinese Capitalism' as Paradigm," Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power 3 (January 1997): 303-30.
142. For an account that explicitly links the two regional cultures with contrasting varieties of cosmopolitanism-a "northern model" that was authoritarian-hieratic, and a "southern model" that was democratic-populist-see Yi-Fu Tuan, Cosmos and Hearth: A Cosmopolite's Viewpoint (Minneapolis, 1996), 68.
143. On the debate over whether or not to preserve the architecture of occupation in contemporary Taiwan, see Marshall Johnson, "Making Time: Historic Preservation and the Space of Nationality," positions: cast asia cultures critique 2 (Fall 1994): 177-249;
144. for similar debates in Hong Kong, see M. Ackbar Abbas, Hong Kong: Culture and the Politics of Disappearance (Minneapolis, 1997), chap. 4.
145. Abbas, Hong Kong, 4. On the "composite" cultural identity of Hong Kong's Chinese community, see also Helen F. Siu, "Cultural Identity and the Politics of Difference in South China," in
146. Tu, China in Transformation, 29.
147. Abbas, Hong Kong, 28.
148. Mark A. Allee, Law and Local Society in Late Imperial China: Northern Taiwan in the Nineteenth Century (Stanford, Calif., 1994).
149. Stevan Harrell and Huang Chun-chieh, "Introduction: Change and Contention in Taiwan's Cultural Scene," in Stevan Harrell and Huang Chun-chieh, eds., Cultural Change in Poshvar Taiwan (Boulder, Colo., 1994), 1-18.
150. Allen Chun, "From Nationalism to Nationalizing: Cultural Imagination and State Formation in Postwar Taiwan," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 31 (January 1994): 49-69;
151. Thomas B. Gold, "Civil Society and Taiwan's Quest for Identity,"
152. in Harrell and Huang, Cultural Change in Postwar Taiwan, 47-68.
153. A. Taiwaner, "Pseudo-Taiwanese: Isle Margin Editorials," positions: east asia cultures critique 4. (Spring 1996): 165.
154. Shih-chung Hsie, "Tourism, Formulation of Cultural Tradition, and Ethnicity: A Study of the Daiyan Identity of the Wulai Atayal,"
155. in Harrell and Huang, Cultural Change in Postwar Taiwan, 184-202;
156. P. Steven Sangren, History and Magical Power in a Chinese Community (Stanford, Calif., 1987), 194-95.
157. Jennifer Robertson, "It Takes a Village: Internationalization and Nostalgia in Postwar Japan," in Stephen Vlastos, ed., Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan (Berkeley, Calif., 1998), 110-32;
158. Marilyn Ivy, Discourses of the Vanishing: Modernity, Phantasm, Japan (Chicago, 1995);
159. Karen Wigen, "Politics and Piety in Japanese Native-Place Studies: The Rhetoric of Solidarity in Shinano," positions: east asia cultures critique (Winter 1996): 491-518.
160. Constantine Nomikos Vaporis, Breaking Barriers: Travel and the State in Early Modem Japan (Cambridge, Mass., 1994).
161. Moriya Katsuhisa, "Urban Networks and Information Networks," Ronald P. Toby, trans., in Chic Nakane and Shinzaburö Oishi, eds., Tokitgawa Japan: The Social and Economic Antecedents of Modem Japan (Tokyo, 1990), 97-123.
162. Mary Elizabeth Berry, "Was Early Modern Japan Culturally Integrated?" Modem Asian Studies 31, no. 3 (1997): 547-81.
163. Luke S. Roberts, Mercantilism in a Japanese Domain: The Merchant Origins of Economic Nationalism in 18th Century Tosa (Cambridge, 1998).
164. Carol Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period (Princeton, N.J., 1985);
165. Michio Umegaki, After the Restoration: The Beginning of Japan's Modem State (New York, 1988)
166. Umegaki, "From Domain to Prefecture," in Marius B. Jansen and Gilbert Rozman, eds., Japan in Transition: From Tokugawa to Meiji (Princeton, 1986), 91-110.
167. Brian Platt, "School, Community, and State Integration in Nineteenth-Century Japan" (PhD dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1998).
168. Karen Wigen, "Constructing Shinano: The Invention of a Neo-traditional Region," in
169. Vlastos, Mirror of Modernity, 229-42.
170. William Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideology, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Andrew Gordon, ed., Posrn-ar Japan as History (Berkeley, Calif., 1993), 189-238.
171. Nina Cornyetz, "Nakagami Kenji's Mystic Writing Pad; or, Tracing Origins, Tales of the Snake, and the Land as Maim,"positions: east asia cultures critique 3 (Spring 1995): 224-54;
172. Oda Sakunosuke, Stories of Osaka Life, Burton Watson, trans. (New York, 1990).
173. On Osaka as a refuge from Kantô cultural style for novelist Tanizaki Junichirö in the early twentieth century, see Masao Miyoshi, Off Center: Power and Culture Relations between Japan and the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 134-35.
174. The critique of folklore studies (minzokugaku) is advanced in J. Victor Koschmann, et al., eds., International Perspectives on Yanagita Kunio and Japanese Folklore Studies (Ithaca, N.Y., 1985);
175. Alan S. Christie, "The Making of Imperial Subjects in Okinawa," positions: east asia cultures critique 1 (Winter 1993): 607-39;
176. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, "The Invention and Reinvention of'Japanese Culture,' " Journal of Asian Studies 54 (August 1995): 759-80;
177. and Mariko Asano Tamanoi, "Gender, Nationalism, and Japanese Native Ethnology,"positions: east asia cultures critique 4 (Spring 1996): 59-86, among others.
178. For summaries of this work in English, see Amino Yoshihiko, "Deconstructing Japan," East Asian History 3 (June 1992): 121-42;
179. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, Reinventing Japan: Time, Space, Nation (Armonk, N.Y., 1998);
180. and Denoon, Multicultural Japan.
181. Entry points into the now vast literature in Japanese on this topic include Arano Yasunori, et al., eds.,Ajia no naka no Nihonshi (Tokyo, 1992);
182. Asao Naohiro, et al., eds., Nihon Tsûslii, Vol. 2, Chiikishi kenkyü no genjö to kadai (Tokyo, 1994);
183. and Kikuchi Isao, Hoppôshi no naka no kinsei Nihon (Tokyo, 1991).
184. In English, see Acta Asiatica 67 (August 1994), a special issue on "Foreign Relations of Tokugawa Japan: Sakoku Reconsidered." On the Japan Sea region and its links to the continent in the modern period,
185. see Furushima Tadao, "'Omote Ajia' no 'Ura Nihon,"' Rekishigaku Kenkyü 610 (September 1990): 50-52;
186. Abe Tsunehisa, Kindai Nihon chiho seitoshi ran-"Ura Nihon"-ka no naka no Niigata-ken seito undo (Tokyo, 1996);
187. Abe, "San'in chiho no 'Ura Nihon' ka ni tsuite no oboegaki," Shakai Kagaku Tökyü 42 (March 1997): 171-96.
188. David L. Howell, Capitalism from Within: Economy, Society, and the State in a Japanese Fishery (Berkeley, Calif., 1995);
189. Richard Torrance, "Literacy and Modern Literature in the Izumo Region, 1880-1930," Journal of Japanese Studies 22 (Summer 1996): 327-62.
190. Henry D. Smith II, "The Floating World in Its Edo Locale, 1750-1850," in Donald Jenkins, ed., The Floating World Revisited (Honolulu, 1995), 25-46;
191. Marcia Yonemoto, "Nihonbashi: Edo's Contested Center," East Asian History, forthcoming;
192. Jinnai Hidenobu, Tokyo: A Spatial Anthropology, Kimiko Nishimura, trans. (Berkeley, Calif., 1995).
193. David L. Howell, "Ainu Ethnicity and the Boundaries of the Early Modern Japanese State," Past and Present 142 (1994): 69-93;
194. Karen Wigen, "Bringing the World Back In: Meditations on the Space-Time of Japanese Early Modernity" (unpublished manuscript in author's possession).
195. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, "Creating the Frontier: Border, Identity, and History in Japan's Far North," East Asian History 1 (June 1994): 1-24;
196. Brett Walker, "Matsumae Domain and the Conquest of Ainu Lands: Ecology and Culture in Tokugawa Expansionism, 1593-1799" (PhD dissertation, University of Oregon, 1997).
197. Arif Dirlik and Rob Wilson, eds., Asia/Pacific as Space of Cultural Production (Boulder, Colo., 1995);
198. Prasenjit Duara, "Transnationalism and the Predicament of Sovereignty: China, 1900-1945,"
199. AHR 102 (October 1997): 1030-51;
200. Pekka Korhoncn, Japan and Asia Pacific Integration: Pacific Romances 1968-1996 (London, 1998).
201. Nishiyama Matsunosuke, Edo Culture: Daily Life and Diversions in Urban Japan, 1600-1868, Gerald Groemer, trans. (Honolulu, 1997), 35-36.
202. Pamela Kyle Crossley, "Manchu Education," in
203. Woodside and Elman, Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 340-77.
204. Ying-Chang Chuang and Arthur P. Wolf, "Marriage in Taiwan, 1885-1905: An Example of Regional Diversity," Journal of Asian Studies 54 (August 1995): 781-95.
205. Janice E. Stockard, Daughters of the Canton Delta: Marriage Patterns and Economic Strategies in South China, 1860-1930 (Stanford, Calif., 1989).
206. Agnes Smedley's escort in Canton, a young Lingnan Christian University professor who studied the silk industry, told her that the women of the Canton delta were "notorious throughout China as Lesbians." Smedley", Portraits of Chinese Women in Revolution (Old Westbury, N.Y., 1976), 105.
207. Mann, Precious Records, 160.
208. Honig, Creating Chinese Ethnicity.
209. Gail Hershatter, Dangerous Pleasures: Prostitution and Modernity in Twentieth-Century Shanghai (Berkeley, Calif., 1997), 54, 347-48.
210. For related observations, see Mann, Precious Records, chap. 5. On courtesans as regional icons in the past,
211. see Wei Minghua, "The Thin Horses of Yangzhou," Antonia Finnane, trans., East Asian History 9 (June 1995): 47-66.