Public Relations and the Law in Crisis Mode: Texaco's Initial Reaction to Incriminating Tapes

Public Relations Review

Volumn 26, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 425-445

  Hoger, Elizabeth A ^a   Swem, Lisa L ^b  

^a WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Nordberg   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0011937415     PISSN: 03638111     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0363-8111(00)00057-6     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Frank Cotham, "We're Interested in Words, Not Deeds," The New Yorker (April 13, 1998), p. 50.
2. Kurt Eichenwald, "Texaco Executives, on Tape, Discussed Impeding a Bias Suit." The New York Times (November 4, 1996), p. A1.
3. See, for example, John F. Budd, "Guilty - Until Proven Innocent: Litigation Journalism Tests Public Relations Acumen," Public Relations Quarterly 39 (1994), pp. 11-14; Kathy R. Fitzpatrick and Maureen S. Rubin, "Public Relations vs. Legal Strategies in Organizational Crisis Situations," Public Relations Review 21 (1995), pp. 21-33; Carole E. Gorney, "The New Rules of Litigation Press Releases," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 23-29; Kathleen A. Martinelli and William Briggs, "Integrating Public Relations and Legal Responses During a Crisis: The Case of Odwalla, Inc.," Public Relations Review 24 (Winter 1998), pp. 443-460; Linda P. Morton and Bill Loving, "In the Stocks: Perilous Press Releases," Public Relations Review 20 (1994), pp. 127-139; Lisa Tyler, "Liability Means Never Having to Say You're Sorry: Corporate Guilt, Legal Constraints, and Defensiveness in Corporate Communication," Management Communication Quarterly 11 (August 1997), pp. 51-73.
4. See, for example, John F. Budd, "Guilty - Until Proven Innocent: Litigation Journalism Tests Public Relations Acumen," Public Relations Quarterly 39 (1994), pp. 11-14; Kathy R. Fitzpatrick and Maureen S. Rubin, "Public Relations vs. Legal Strategies in Organizational Crisis Situations," Public Relations Review 21 (1995), pp. 21-33; Carole E. Gorney, "The New Rules of Litigation Press Releases," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 23-29; Kathleen A. Martinelli and William Briggs, "Integrating Public Relations and Legal Responses During a Crisis: The Case of Odwalla, Inc.," Public Relations Review 24 (Winter 1998), pp. 443-460; Linda P. Morton and Bill Loving, "In the Stocks: Perilous Press Releases," Public Relations Review 20 (1994), pp. 127-139; Lisa Tyler, "Liability Means Never Having to Say You're Sorry: Corporate Guilt, Legal Constraints, and Defensiveness in Corporate Communication," Management Communication Quarterly 11 (August 1997), pp. 51-73.
5. See, for example, John F. Budd, "Guilty - Until Proven Innocent: Litigation Journalism Tests Public Relations Acumen," Public Relations Quarterly 39 (1994), pp. 11-14; Kathy R. Fitzpatrick and Maureen S. Rubin, "Public Relations vs. Legal Strategies in Organizational Crisis Situations," Public Relations Review 21 (1995), pp. 21-33; Carole E. Gorney, "The New Rules of Litigation Press Releases," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 23-29; Kathleen A. Martinelli and William Briggs, "Integrating Public Relations and Legal Responses During a Crisis: The Case of Odwalla, Inc.," Public Relations Review 24 (Winter 1998), pp. 443-460; Linda P. Morton and Bill Loving, "In the Stocks: Perilous Press Releases," Public Relations Review 20 (1994), pp. 127-139; Lisa Tyler, "Liability Means Never Having to Say You're Sorry: Corporate Guilt, Legal Constraints, and Defensiveness in Corporate Communication," Management Communication Quarterly 11 (August 1997), pp. 51-73.
6. See, for example, John F. Budd, "Guilty - Until Proven Innocent: Litigation Journalism Tests Public Relations Acumen," Public Relations Quarterly 39 (1994), pp. 11-14; Kathy R. Fitzpatrick and Maureen S. Rubin, "Public Relations vs. Legal Strategies in Organizational Crisis Situations," Public Relations Review 21 (1995), pp. 21-33; Carole E. Gorney, "The New Rules of Litigation Press Releases," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 23-29; Kathleen A. Martinelli and William Briggs, "Integrating Public Relations and Legal Responses During a Crisis: The Case of Odwalla, Inc.," Public Relations Review 24 (Winter 1998), pp. 443-460; Linda P. Morton and Bill Loving, "In the Stocks: Perilous Press Releases," Public Relations Review 20 (1994), pp. 127-139; Lisa Tyler, "Liability Means Never Having to Say You're Sorry: Corporate Guilt, Legal Constraints, and Defensiveness in Corporate Communication," Management Communication Quarterly 11 (August 1997), pp. 51-73.
7. See, for example, John F. Budd, "Guilty - Until Proven Innocent: Litigation Journalism Tests Public Relations Acumen," Public Relations Quarterly 39 (1994), pp. 11-14; Kathy R. Fitzpatrick and Maureen S. Rubin, "Public Relations vs. Legal Strategies in Organizational Crisis Situations," Public Relations Review 21 (1995), pp. 21-33; Carole E. Gorney, "The New Rules of Litigation Press Releases," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 23-29; Kathleen A. Martinelli and William Briggs, "Integrating Public Relations and Legal Responses During a Crisis: The Case of Odwalla, Inc.," Public Relations Review 24 (Winter 1998), pp. 443-460; Linda P. Morton and Bill Loving, "In the Stocks: Perilous Press Releases," Public Relations Review 20 (1994), pp. 127-139; Lisa Tyler, "Liability Means Never Having to Say You're Sorry: Corporate Guilt, Legal Constraints, and Defensiveness in Corporate Communication," Management Communication Quarterly 11 (August 1997), pp. 51-73.
8. See, for example, John F. Budd, "Guilty - Until Proven Innocent: Litigation Journalism Tests Public Relations Acumen," Public Relations Quarterly 39 (1994), pp. 11-14; Kathy R. Fitzpatrick and Maureen S. Rubin, "Public Relations vs. Legal Strategies in Organizational Crisis Situations," Public Relations Review 21 (1995), pp. 21-33; Carole E. Gorney, "The New Rules of Litigation Press Releases," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 23-29; Kathleen A. Martinelli and William Briggs, "Integrating Public Relations and Legal Responses During a Crisis: The Case of Odwalla, Inc.," Public Relations Review 24 (Winter 1998), pp. 443-460; Linda P. Morton and Bill Loving, "In the Stocks: Perilous Press Releases," Public Relations Review 20 (1994), pp. 127-139; Lisa Tyler, "Liability Means Never Having to Say You're Sorry: Corporate Guilt, Legal Constraints, and Defensiveness in Corporate Communication," Management Communication Quarterly 11 (August 1997), pp. 51-73.
9. See, for example, J. Robert Brown, "Understanding How Communications Are Regulated Is Critical for Counsel," Preventive Law Reporter 9 (June 1990), pp. 9-13; William T. Hangley, "The Fourth Estate and the Second Front: Winning in the Press," Litigation 23 (1997),pp. 14-21, 5 7-58; National Association of College and University Attorneys (NACUA), "Public Relations and Legal Counsel: Working Effectively Together," (CASE Issues Paper for Advancement Professionals, No. 26, Washington, D. C., 1997); Robert L. Rothman, ed. Lawyers and Reporters: Understanding and Working with the Media (Chicago, IL: ABA Press, 2000); Kathleen Strickland, "Media Management: Before, During, and After." The Counselor: The Newsletter for Women Attorneys 1 (May 1997), pp. 13-15.
10. See, for example, J. Robert Brown, "Understanding How Communications Are Regulated Is Critical for Counsel," Preventive Law Reporter 9 (June 1990), pp. 9-13; William T. Hangley, "The Fourth Estate and the Second Front: Winning in the Press," Litigation 23 (1997),pp. 14-21, 5 7-58; National Association of College and University Attorneys (NACUA), "Public Relations and Legal Counsel: Working Effectively Together," (CASE Issues Paper for Advancement Professionals, No. 26, Washington, D. C., 1997); Robert L. Rothman, ed. Lawyers and Reporters: Understanding and Working with the Media (Chicago, IL: ABA Press, 2000); Kathleen Strickland, "Media Management: Before, During, and After." The Counselor: The Newsletter for Women Attorneys 1 (May 1997), pp. 13-15.
11. See, for example, J. Robert Brown, "Understanding How Communications Are Regulated Is Critical for Counsel," Preventive Law Reporter 9 (June 1990), pp. 9-13; William T. Hangley, "The Fourth Estate and the Second Front: Winning in the Press," Litigation 23 (1997),pp. 14-21, 5 7-58; National Association of College and University Attorneys (NACUA), "Public Relations and Legal Counsel: Working Effectively Together," (CASE Issues Paper for Advancement Professionals, No. 26, Washington, D. C., 1997); Robert L. Rothman, ed. Lawyers and Reporters: Understanding and Working with the Media (Chicago, IL: ABA Press, 2000); Kathleen Strickland, "Media Management: Before, During, and After." The Counselor: The Newsletter for Women Attorneys 1 (May 1997), pp. 13-15.
12. See, for example, J. Robert Brown, "Understanding How Communications Are Regulated Is Critical for Counsel," Preventive Law Reporter 9 (June 1990), pp. 9-13; William T. Hangley, "The Fourth Estate and the Second Front: Winning in the Press," Litigation 23 (1997),pp. 14-21, 5 7-58; National Association of College and University Attorneys (NACUA), "Public Relations and Legal Counsel: Working Effectively Together," (CASE Issues Paper for Advancement Professionals, No. 26, Washington, D. C., 1997); Robert L. Rothman, ed. Lawyers and Reporters: Understanding and Working with the Media (Chicago, IL: ABA Press, 2000); Kathleen Strickland, "Media Management: Before, During, and After." The Counselor: The Newsletter for Women Attorneys 1 (May 1997), pp. 13-15.
13. See, for example, J. Robert Brown, "Understanding How Communications Are Regulated Is Critical for Counsel," Preventive Law Reporter 9 (June 1990), pp. 9-13; William T. Hangley, "The Fourth Estate and the Second Front: Winning in the Press," Litigation 23 (1997),pp. 14-21, 5 7-58; National Association of College and University Attorneys (NACUA), "Public Relations and Legal Counsel: Working Effectively Together," (CASE Issues Paper for Advancement Professionals, No. 26, Washington, D. C., 1997); Robert L. Rothman, ed. Lawyers and Reporters: Understanding and Working with the Media (Chicago, IL: ABA Press, 2000); Kathleen Strickland, "Media Management: Before, During, and After." The Counselor: The Newsletter for Women Attorneys 1 (May 1997), pp. 13-15.
14. Lisa Tyler, op. cit. Tyler's point is strengthened by the attention Wal-Mart received for making a public apology after withholding information during discovery: "Wal-Mart: Why an Apology Made Sense," Business Week (July 3, 2000), pp. 65-66.
15. Robert Rothman, op. cit.
16. Robert Brown, op. cit.
17. Kathleen Strickland, op. cit.; William T. Hangley, op. cit.
18. Kathleen Strickland, op. cit.; William T. Hangley, op. cit.
19. Kathleen Strickland, op. cit., p. 13.
20. William T. Hangley, op. cit., p. 16.
21. See, for example, Milner S. Ball, Lying Down Together: Law, Metaphor, and Theology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985); Thomas Clark, "The Impact of Candid Versus Legally Defensible Language on the Persuasiveness of Environmental Self-Assessments," Journal of Business Communication 35 (1998), pp. 368-386; James B. White, Heracles' Bow: Essays on the Rhetoric and Poetics of the Law (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985).
22. See, for example, Milner S. Ball, Lying Down Together: Law, Metaphor, and Theology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985); Thomas Clark, "The Impact of Candid Versus Legally Defensible Language on the Persuasiveness of Environmental Self-Assessments," Journal of Business Communication 35 (1998), pp. 368-386; James B. White, Heracles' Bow: Essays on the Rhetoric and Poetics of the Law (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985).
23. See, for example, Milner S. Ball, Lying Down Together: Law, Metaphor, and Theology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985); Thomas Clark, "The Impact of Candid Versus Legally Defensible Language on the Persuasiveness of Environmental Self-Assessments," Journal of Business Communication 35 (1998), pp. 368-386; James B. White, Heracles' Bow: Essays on the Rhetoric and Poetics of the Law (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985).
24. Thomas Bivins, Handbook for Public Relations Writing, 2nd ed., (Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Business Books, 1991), p. 25.
25. Linda P. Morton and Bill Loving, op. cit., p. 134.
26. John Budd, op. cit., p. 14; Charles S. Mishkind and Yvonne Haddad, "Class Action Litigation: Communicating with the Public and Class Members," Employee Relations Law, 23 (3), p. 85; Kurt Stocker, "A Strategic Approach to Crisis Management," in Caywood L. Clarke (ed.), Handbook of Strategic Public Relations and Integrated Communications (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1997), pp. 189-203.
27. John Budd, op. cit., p. 14; Charles S. Mishkind and Yvonne Haddad, "Class Action Litigation: Communicating with the Public and Class Members," Employee Relations Law, 23 (3), p. 85; Kurt Stocker, "A Strategic Approach to Crisis Management," in Caywood L. Clarke (ed.), Handbook of Strategic Public Relations and Integrated Communications (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1997), pp. 189-203.
28. John Budd, op. cit., p. 14; Charles S. Mishkind and Yvonne Haddad, "Class Action Litigation: Communicating with the Public and Class Members," Employee Relations Law, 23 (3), p. 85; Kurt Stocker, "A Strategic Approach to Crisis Management," in Caywood L. Clarke (ed.), Handbook of Strategic Public Relations and Integrated Communications (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1997), pp. 189-203.
29. John Budd, op. cit., p. 12.
30. Kathleen A. Martinelli and William Briggs, op. cit., p. 458.
31. Kathy R. Fitzpatrick and Maureen Shubow Rubin, op. cit., p. 31.
32. Quoted in Frank Corrado, Getting the Word Out: How Managers Can Create Value with Communications (Homewood, IL: Business One/Irwin, 1993), p. 172.
33. Mark Curriden, "Pressing Your Point: More Legal Teams are Using Lawyer-Spokespersons to Take on the Media," ABA Journal 84 (December 1998), p. 20.
34. "Face-off," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Winter 1995), p. 30.
35. Barry M. Epstein, "Lawyers Should Lead," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 33, 35; Steve Frankel, "In Defense of Lawyers," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 24-29; Frank Winston Wylie, "Public Relations Should Lead," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 32, 34.
36. Barry M. Epstein, "Lawyers Should Lead," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 33, 35; Steve Frankel, "In Defense of Lawyers," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 24-29; Frank Winston Wylie, "Public Relations Should Lead," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 32, 34.
37. Barry M. Epstein, "Lawyers Should Lead," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 33, 35; Steve Frankel, "In Defense of Lawyers," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 24-29; Frank Winston Wylie, "Public Relations Should Lead," Public Relations Strategist 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 32, 34.
38. See, for example, NACUA, op. cit.; Anne-Marie St. Germaine, "Preparing to Handle the News Media during a Crisis," School Law in Review (1999), pp. 3.1-3.5.; Rothman, op. cit.; Michael E. Tigar, Persuasion: The Litigator's Art (Chicago, IL: American Bar Association, 1999).
39. See, for example, NACUA, op. cit.; Anne-Marie St. Germaine, "Preparing to Handle the News Media during a Crisis," School Law in Review (1999), pp. 3.1-3.5.; Rothman, op. cit.; Michael E. Tigar, Persuasion: The Litigator's Art (Chicago, IL: American Bar Association, 1999).
40. See, for example, NACUA, op. cit.; Anne-Marie St. Germaine, "Preparing to Handle the News Media during a Crisis," School Law in Review (1999), pp. 3.1-3.5.; Rothman, op. cit.; Michael E. Tigar, Persuasion: The Litigator's Art (Chicago, IL: American Bar Association, 1999).
41. See, for example, NACUA, op. cit.; Anne-Marie St. Germaine, "Preparing to Handle the News Media during a Crisis," School Law in Review (1999), pp. 3.1-3.5.; Rothman, op. cit.; Michael E. Tigar, Persuasion: The Litigator's Art (Chicago, IL: American Bar Association, 1999).
42. See, for example, Steve Albrecht, Crisis Management for Corporate Self-Defense (New York, NY: Amacom, 1996), p. 165; Thomas Bivins, op. cit., pp. 25-29; Frank Corrado, op. cit., p. 171; Robert L. Heath, Strategic Issues Management: Organizations and Public Policy Challenges (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997) p. 301-302; Davis Young, Building Your Company's Good Name: How to Create and Protect the Reputation Your Organization Wants and Deserves (New York, NY: Amacom, 1996) p. 141.
43. See, for example, Steve Albrecht, Crisis Management for Corporate Self-Defense (New York, NY: Amacom, 1996), p. 165; Thomas Bivins, op. cit., pp. 25-29; Frank Corrado, op. cit., p. 171; Robert L. Heath, Strategic Issues Management: Organizations and Public Policy Challenges (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997) p. 301-302; Davis Young, Building Your Company's Good Name: How to Create and Protect the Reputation Your Organization Wants and Deserves (New York, NY: Amacom, 1996) p. 141.
44. See, for example, Steve Albrecht, Crisis Management for Corporate Self-Defense (New York, NY: Amacom, 1996), p. 165; Thomas Bivins, op. cit., pp. 25-29; Frank Corrado, op. cit., p. 171; Robert L. Heath, Strategic Issues Management: Organizations and Public Policy Challenges (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997) p. 301-302; Davis Young, Building Your Company's Good Name: How to Create and Protect the Reputation Your Organization Wants and Deserves (New York, NY: Amacom, 1996) p. 141.
45. See, for example, Steve Albrecht, Crisis Management for Corporate Self-Defense (New York, NY: Amacom, 1996), p. 165; Thomas Bivins, op. cit., pp. 25-29; Frank Corrado, op. cit., p. 171; Robert L. Heath, Strategic Issues Management: Organizations and Public Policy Challenges (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997) p. 301-302; Davis Young, Building Your Company's Good Name: How to Create and Protect the Reputation Your Organization Wants and Deserves (New York, NY: Amacom, 1996) p. 141.
46. See, for example, Steve Albrecht, Crisis Management for Corporate Self-Defense (New York, NY: Amacom, 1996), p. 165; Thomas Bivins, op. cit., pp. 25-29; Frank Corrado, op. cit., p. 171; Robert L. Heath, Strategic Issues Management: Organizations and Public Policy Challenges (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997) p. 301-302; Davis Young, Building Your Company's Good Name: How to Create and Protect the Reputation Your Organization Wants and Deserves (New York, NY: Amacom, 1996) p. 141.
47. Frank Wiley, op. cit., p. 34.
48. Arthur H. Garwin, ed. ABA Compendium of Professional Responsibility Rules and Standards (Chicago, IL: ABA Press, 1999).
49. See copy in Roy Moore, Ronald T. Farrar, and Erik L. Collins, Advertising and Public Relations Law (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998), pp. 420-428.
50. Marion Pinsdorf, Communicating when Your Company is under Siege: Surviving Public Crisis, 3rd ed., (New York, NY: Fordham UP, 1999).
51. Anne-Marie St. Germaine, op. cit, p. 3-2. On the necessity of immediate response, see also Steve Albrecht, op. cit, p. 162 and Otto Lerbinger, The Crisis Manager: Facing Risk and Responsibility (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), p. 44.
52. Anne-Marie St. Germaine, op. cit, p. 3-2. On the necessity of immediate response, see also Steve Albrecht, op. cit, p. 162 and Otto Lerbinger, The Crisis Manager: Facing Risk and Responsibility (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), p. 44.
53. Anne-Marie St. Germaine, op. cit, p. 3-2. On the necessity of immediate response, see also Steve Albrecht, op. cit, p. 162 and Otto Lerbinger, The Crisis Manager: Facing Risk and Responsibility (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), p. 44.
54. Otto Lerbinger, ibid., p. 31.
55. Steve Frankel, op. cit., p. 24.
56. William T. Hangley, op. cit., p. 17.
57. Barry M. Epstein, op. cit., p. 35.
58. Kathleen Strickland, op. cit., p. 13. Others who note the pressure to settle are John Budd, op. cit.,p. 11; Carole Gorney, op. cit., p. 28; and Steven A. Holmes, "Bias Suit Harbinger," The New York Times (November 17, 1996), p. A12.
59. Kathleen Strickland, op. cit., p. 13. Others who note the pressure to settle are John Budd, op. cit.,p. 11; Carole Gorney, op. cit., p. 28; and Steven A. Holmes, "Bias Suit Harbinger," The New York Times (November 17, 1996), p. A12.
60. Kathleen Strickland, op. cit., p. 13. Others who note the pressure to settle are John Budd, op. cit.,p. 11; Carole Gorney, op. cit., p. 28; and Steven A. Holmes, "Bias Suit Harbinger," The New York Times (November 17, 1996), p. A12.
61. Kathleen Strickland, op. cit., p. 13. Others who note the pressure to settle are John Budd, op. cit.,p. 11; Carole Gorney, op. cit., p. 28; and Steven A. Holmes, "Bias Suit Harbinger," The New York Times (November 17, 1996), p. A12.
62. Charles S. Mishkind and Yvonne Haddad, op. cit., p. 96.
63. James E. Post and Patricia C. Kelley, "Lessons from the Learning Curve: The Past, Present, and Future of Issues Management," in Robert Heath (ed.), Strategic Issues Management: How Organizations Influence and Respond to Public Interests and Policies (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1988), pp. 345-365.
64. Kathy Fitzpatrick and Maureen Shubow Rubin, op. cit., p. 22.
65. Lisa Tyler, op. cit.
66. David M. Marriot, "What to Do When the Press Calls: How to Deal with Aggressive Media," paper presented at the meeting of the National Association of College and University Attorneys. June 1997, Seattle, WA.
67. Kathleen Fearn-Banks, "Companies with On-going Two-way Communications Often Avoid Crises or Endure Crises of Shorter Duration or of Lesser Magnitude." Crisis Communications: A Casebook Approach (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996), p. 3.
68. Lisa Tyler, op. cit.
69. Robert L. Heath, op. cit., p. 315.
70. Doug Williams, "In Defense of the (Properly Executed) Press Release," Public Relations Quarterly, 39 (Fall 1994), p. 5.
71. Davis Young, op. cit., p. 55.
72. Thomas Bivins, op. cit., p. 25; Sandra Hvidsten and Larry White, ibid., p. 10.
73. Thomas Bivins, op. cit., p. 25; Sandra Hvidsten and Larry White, ibid., p. 10.
74. Thomas Bivins, ibid., p, 27.
75. Ibid., p. 26.
76. Janet L. Pulliam, "The Attorney's Role in Responding to Violence: A Case Study of Jonesboro, Arkansas," School Law in Review (1999), pp. 2-11.
77. Linda P. Morton and Bill Loving, op. cit., p. 132.
78. Doug Williams, op. cit., p. 5.
79. Timothy Coombs, "Choosing the Right Words: The Development of Guidelines for the Selection of 'Appropriate' Crisis-Response Strategies," Management Communication Quarterly 8 (May 1995), pp. 447-476.
80. Marquis James, The Texaco Story: The First Fifty Years, 1902-1952. (New York, Texas Company, 1953).
81. Ibid., p. 29. The reference is from Uncle Tom's Cabin.
82. Amy Jaffe Myers, "At Texaco, the Diversity Skeleton Still Stalks the Halls," The New York Times (December 11, 1994), p. 3.5.
83. "Texaco Faulted over Promotions," The New York Times (June 15, 1996), p. 1.33.
84. Elsa Brenner, "Texaco Accused of Bias in Suit by Blacks," The New York Times (July 15, 1996), p. 13WC.1
85. Kurt Eichenwald, op. cit.
86. Kathy R. Fitzpatrick and Maureen Shubow Rubin, op. cit., p. 25.
87. Robert L. Heath, op. cit., p. 317.
88. Robert A. Bennett, "Texaco's Bijur: Hero or Sellout?" Public Relations Strategist 2 (Winter 1996), p. 18.
89. Texaco, "Texaco Responds to Media Inquiries Regarding Allegations in the New York Times Article" (November 4, 1996). [Online]. Available: http://www.texaco-.com/compinfo/pr11_4.htm; Peter I. Bijur, "Letter from CEO Peter I. Bijur to All Employees." (November 4, 1996). [Online]. Available: http://www.texaco.com/ compinfo/letter.htm; Peter I. Bijur, "Video Message from Peter I. Bijur, Chairman and CEO of Texaco, Inc. to All Employees via Satellite Transmission."[Online]. Available: http//www.texaco.com/compinfo/videomsg.htm, p. 1.
90. Texaco, "Texaco Responds to Media Inquiries Regarding Allegations in the New York Times Article" (November 4, 1996). [Online]. Available: http://www.texaco- .com/compinfo/pr11_4.htm; Peter I. Bijur, "Letter from CEO Peter I. Bijur to All Employees." (November 4, 1996). [Online]. Available: http://www.texaco.com/ compinfo/letter.htm; Peter I. Bijur, "Video Message from Peter I. Bijur, Chairman and CEO of Texaco, Inc. to All Employees via Satellite Transmission."[Online]. Available: http//www.texaco.com/compinfo/videomsg.htm, p. 1.
91. Texaco, "Texaco Responds to Media Inquiries Regarding Allegations in the New York Times Article" (November 4, 1996). [Online]. Available: http://www.texaco- .com/compinfo/pr11_4.htm; Peter I. Bijur, "Letter from CEO Peter I. Bijur to All Employees." (November 4, 1996). [Online]. Available: http://www.texaco.com/ compinfo/letter.htm; Peter I. Bijur, "Video Message from Peter I. Bijur, Chairman and CEO of Texaco, Inc. to All Employees via Satellite Transmission."[Online]. Available: http//www.texaco.com/compinfo/videomsg.htm, p. 1.
92. Carole E. Gorney, op. cit., p. 24.
93. Davis Young, op. cit., p. 82.
94. "For Texaco, a Transition at the Top," The New York Times (January 30, 1996), p. D5.
95. Shel Holtz, Public Relations on the Net: Winning Strategies to Inform and Influence the Media, the Investment Community, the Government, the Public, and More (New York, NY: AMA Publications, 1999).
96. Stephen P. Banks, Multi-Cultural Public Relations: A Social-Interpretive Approach (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995).
97. Susan L. Brinson and William L. Benoit, "Restoring Texaco's Damaged Public Image," Management Communication Quarterly 12 (May 1999), pp. 483-510.
98. Ibid., p. 493.
99. Keith Michael Hearit, "Apologies and Public Relations Crises at Chrysler, Toshiba, and Volvo," Public Relations Review 20 (1994), p. 115.
100. Peter A. Bijur, "Statement by Peter I. Bijur, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Texaco, Inc." (November 6, 1996). [Online]. Available: http://www.texaco.com/ compinfo/pr11_6.htm, p. 1.
101. Jeffrey L. Seglin, "A Safer World for Corporate Mea Culpas," The New York Times (March 21, 1999), p. BU4.
102. "Texaco Shareholder Files Suit," The Oil Daily 46 (November 12, 1996), p. 9.
103. One can draw this conclusion in part from the time that elapsed between the initial lawsuit in March of 1994 and the sudden willingness to settle in November 1996. Bari-Ellen Roberts, the named plaintiff, op. cit., also details Texaco's sluggishness.
104. Bari-Ellen Roberts, op. cit., p. 260.
105. Texaco, Texaco, Inc. 1996 Annual Report: Aligned for Growth (Texaco, 1997), p. 6.
106. Peter Grant, "Texaco Missed Chance to Settle Racial Suit Two Years Ago," The New York Daily News (November 17, 1996), accessed via InfoTrac; Steven A. Holmes, op. cit.
107. Peter Grant, "Texaco Missed Chance to Settle Racial Suit Two Years Ago," The New York Daily News (November 17, 1996), accessed via InfoTrac; Steven A. Holmes, op. cit.
108. Robert Bennett, op. cit.; Genevieve Capowski, "Texaco and the Jelly Bean Incident: A True Fable," HR Focus 73 (December 1996); Gerald C. Meyers and Susan Meyers, "Texaco's Hasty Apology," The New York Times (January 12, 1997), p. F14.
109. Robert Bennett, op. cit.; Genevieve Capowski, "Texaco and the Jelly Bean Incident: A True Fable," HR Focus 73 (December 1996); Gerald C. Meyers and Susan Meyers, "Texaco's Hasty Apology," The New York Times (January 12, 1997), p. F14.
110. Robert Bennett, op. cit.; Genevieve Capowski, "Texaco and the Jelly Bean Incident: A True Fable," HR Focus 73 (December 1996); Gerald C. Meyers and Susan Meyers, "Texaco's Hasty Apology," The New York Times (January 12, 1997), p. F14.
111. Shel Holtz, op. cit., p. 215.