The phenology of growth and reproduction in plants

Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 78-91

  Fenner, Michael ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Flowering; Fruiting; Leafing; Pollination; Seed predation; Synchrony

Indexed keywords

EID: 0002579616     PISSN: 14338319     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1078/1433-8319-00053     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Aide, T.M. (1991) Synchronous leaf production and herbivory in juveniles of Gustavia superba. Oecologia, 88, 511-514.
2. Aide, T.M. (1992) Dry season leaf production: An escape from herbivory. Biotropica, 24, 532-537.
3. Aide, T.M. (1993) Patterns of leaf development and herbivory in a tropical understory community. Ecology, 74, 455-466.
4. Akeroyd, J.R. & Briggs, D. (1983) Genecological studies of Rumex crispus L Garden experiments using transplanted material. New Phytologist, 94, 309-323.
5. Allen, R.B. & Platt, K.H. (1990) Annual seedfall variation in Nothofagus solandri (Fagaceae), Canterbury, New Zealand. Oikos, 57, 199-206.
6. Al-Mufti, M.M., Sydes, C.L., Furness, S.B., Grime, J.P. & Band, S.R. (1977) A quantitative analysis of shoot phenology and dominance in herbaceous vegetation. Journal of Ecology, 65, 759-791.
7. Ashman, T.-L. & Schoen, D.J. (1997) The cost of floral longevity in Clarkia tembloriensis: an experimental investigation. Evolutionary Ecology, 11, 289-300.
8. Ashton, P.S., Givnish, T.J. & Appanah, S. (1988) Staggered flowering in the Dipterocarpaceae: new insights into floral induction and the evolution of mast fruiting in the aseasonal tropics. American Naturalist, 132, 44-66.
9. Augspurger, C.K. (1981) Reproductive synchrony of a tropical shrub: Experimental studies on effects of pollinators and seed predators on Hybanthus prunifolius (Violaceae). Ecology, 62, 775-788.
10. Bell, D.T. & Stephens, L.J. (1984) Seasonally and phenology of kwongan species. Kwongan: Plant Life of the Sandplain (eds. J.S. Pate & J.S. Beard), pp. 205-226. University of Australia Press, Nedlands.
11. Bernier, G., Kinet, J.-M. & Sachs, R.M. (1981) The Physiology of Flowering. CRC Press Inc., Florida.
12. Borchert, R. (1994) Soil and stem water storage determine phenology and distribution of tropical dry forest trees. Ecology, 75, 1437-1449.
13. Bradshaw, A.D. (1984) The importance of evolutionary ideas in ecology - and vice versa. Evolutionary Ecology (ed. B. Shorrocks), pp. 1-25. Symposium BES 23, Blackwells Scientific Publications, Oxford.
14. Brody, A.K. (1997) Effects of pollinators, herbivores, and seed predators on flowering phenology. Ecology, 78, 1624-1631.
15. Brooke, M. de L., Jones, P.J., Vickery, J.A. & Waldren, S. (1996) Seasonal patterns of leaf growth and loss, flowering and fruiting on a subtropical central Pacific island. Biotropica, 28, 164-179.
16. Bullock, S.H. & Solís-Magallanes, J.A. (1990) Phenology of canopy trees of a tropical deciduous forest in Mexico. Biotropica, 22, 22-35.
17. Carpenter, F.L. (1976) Plant-pollinator interactions in Hawaii: pollination energetics of Metrosideros collina (Myrtaceae). Ecology, 57, 1125-1144.
18. Chidumayo, E.N. (1994) Phenology and nutrition of Miombo woodland trees in Zambia. Trees - Structure and Function, 9, 67-72.
19. Cole, B.J. (1981) Overlap, regularity, and flowering phenologies. American Naturalist, 117, 993-997.
20. De Lampe, M.G., Bergeron, Y., McNeil, R. & Leduc, A. (1992) Seasonal flowering and fruiting patterns in tropical semiarid vegetation of north-eastern Venezuela. Biotropica, 24, 64-76.
21. Delarco, J.M., Escudero, A. & Garrido, M.V. (1991) Effects of site characteristics on nitrogen retranslocation from senescing leaves. Ecology, 72, 701-708.
22. Diekmann, M. (1996) Relationship between flowering phenology of perennial herbs and meteorological data in deciduous forests of Sweden. Canadian Journal of Botany, 74, 528-537.
23. Dieringer, G. (1991) Variation in individual flowering time and reproductive success of Agalinis strictifolia (Scrophulariaceae). American Journal of Botany, 78, 497-503.
24. Dominquez, C.A. & Dirzo, R. (1995) Rainfall and flowering synchrony in a tropical shrub: variable selection on the flowering time of Erythroxylum havanense. Evolutionary Ecology, 9, 204-216.
25. English-Loeb, G.U. & Karban, R. (1992) Consequences of variation in flowering phenology for seed head herbivory and reproductive success in Erigeron glaucus (Compositae). Oecologia, 89, 588-595.
26. Eriksson, O. (1995) Asynchronous flowering reduces seed predation in the perennial forest herb Actaea spicata. Acta Oecologica, 16, 195-203.
27. Estabrook, G.F., Winsor, J.A., Stephenson, A.G. & Howe, H.F. (1982) When are two phenological patterns different? Botanical Gazette, 143, 374-378.
28. Evans, E.W., Smith, C.C. & Gendron, R.P. (1989) Timing of reproduction in a prairie legume: seasonal impacts of insects consuming flowers and seeds. Oecologia, 78, 220-230.
29. Fenner, M. (1982) Aspects of the ecology of Acacia-Commiphora woodland near Kibwesi, Kenya. Journal of the East African Natural History Society & National Museum of Kenya, 175, 1-11.
30. Fenner, M. (1985) Seed Ecology. Chapman & Hall, London.
31. Fenner, M. (1991) Irregular seed crops in forest trees. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 85, 166-172.
32. Frankie, G.W., Baker, H.G. & Opler, P.A. (1974) Comparative phenological studies of trees in tropical wet and dry forests in the lowlands of Costa Rica. Journal of Ecology, 62, 881-913.
33. French, K. (1992) Phenology of fleshy fruits in a wet sclerophyll forest in southeastern Australia: Are birds an important influence? Oecologia, 90, 366-373
34. Friedel, M.H., Nelson, D.J., Sparrow, A.D., Kinloch, J.E., & Maconochie, J.R. (1993) What induces central Australian arid zone trees and shrubs to flower and fruit? Australian Journal of Botany, 41, 307-319.
35. Galen, C. & Gregory, T. (1989) Interspecific pollen transfer as a mechanism for competition: consequences of foreign pollen contamination for seed set in an alpine wildflower, Polemonium viscosum. Oecologia, 81, 120-123.
36. Galen, C. & Stanton, M.L. (1991) Consequences of emergence phenology for reproductive success in Ranunculus adoneus (Ranunculaceae). American Journal of Botany, 78, 978-988.
37. Garwood, N.C. (1983) Seed germination in a seasonal tropical forest in Panama: A community study. Ecological Monographs, 53, 159-181.
38. Gleeson, S.K. (1981) Character displacement in flowering phenologies. Oecologia, 51, 294-295.
39. Grime, J.P. & Mowforth, M.A. (1982) Variation in genome size - an ecological interpretation. Nature, 299, 151-153.
40. Grime, J.P., Shacklock, J.M.L & Band, S.R. (1985). Nuclear DNA contents, shoot phenology and species co-existence in a limestone grassland community. New Phytologist, 100, 435-445.
41. Haase, P. (1986) Flowering records of some subalpine trees and shrubs at Arthur's Pass, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 9 19-23.
42. Heinrich, B. (1976) Flowering phenologies: bog, woodland, and disturbed habitats. Ecology, 57, 890-899.
43. Helenurm, K. & Barrett, S.C.H. (1987) The reproductive biology of boreal forest herbs. 2. Phenology of flowering and fruiting. Canadian Journal of Botany, 65, 2047-2056.
44. Herrera, C.M. (1984) A study of avian frugivores, bird-dispersed plants, and their interactions in Mediterranean scrublands. Ecological Monographs, 54, 1-23.
45. Herrera, C.M. (1995a) Floral biology, microclimate, and pollination by ectothermic bees in an early-blooming herb. Ecology, 76, 218-228.
46. Herrera, C.M. (1995b) Plant-vertebrate seed dispersal systems in the Mediterranean: ecological, evolutionary, and historical determinants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 26, 705-727.
47. Hilton, G.M. & Packham, J.R. (1986) Annual and regional variation in English beech mast (Fagus sylvatica L). Arboricultural Journal, 10, 3-14.
48. Hilty, S.L. (1980) Flowering and fruiting periodicity in a premontane rain forest in Pacific Colombia. Biotropica, 12, 292-306.
49. Howe, H.F. (1984) Implications of seed dispersal by animals for tropical reserve management. Biological Conservation, 30, 261-281.
50. Ibarra-Manríques, G., Sánchez-Garfias, B. & González-Garcia, L. (1991) Fenologia de lianas y arboles anemocoros en una selva calido-humeda de Mexico. Biotropica, 23, 242-254.
51. Janzen, D.H. (1985) On ecological fitting. Oikos, 45, 308-310.
52. Johnson, S.D. (1993) Climatic and phylogenetic determinants of flowering seasonality in the Cape flora. Journal of Ecology, 81, 567-572.
53. Jordano, P. (1992) Fruits and frugivory. Seeds: The Ecology of Regeneration in Plant Communities (ed. M. Fenner), pp. 105-156. CAB International, Oxford.
54. Kochmer, J.P. & Handel, S.N. (1986) Constraints and competition in the evolution of flowering phenology. Ecological Monographs, 56, 303-325.
55. Kudo, G. (1993) Relationship between flowering time and fruit set of the entomophilous alpine shrub, Rhododendron aureum (Ericaceae), inhabiting snow patches. American Journal of Botany, 80, 1300-1304.
56. Kursar, T.A. & Coley, P.D. (1992) Delayed greening in tropical leaves: an antiherbivore defense. Biotropica, 24, 256-262.
57. Lack, A.J. (1982) Competition for pollinators in the ecology of Centaurea scabiosa L. and Centaurea nigra L. I. Variation in flowering time. New Phytologist, 91, 297-308.
58. Lambert, F.R. & Marshall, A.G. (1991) Keystone characteristics of bird-dispersed Ficus in a Malaysian lowland rain forest. Journal of Ecology, 79, 793-809.
59. Lechowicz, M.J. (1995) Seasonality of flowering and fruiting in temperate forest trees. Canadian Journal of Botany, 73, 175-182.
60. Lechowicz, M.J. & Koike, T. (1995) Phenology and seasonality of woody plants: an unappreciated element in global change research. Canadian Journal of Botany, 73, 147-148.
61. Lee, W.G., Grubb, P.J. & Wilson, J.B. (1991). Patterns of resource allocation in fleshy fruits of nine European tall shrub species. Oikos, 61, 307-315.
62. Lieberman, D. & Lieberman, M. (1984) The causes and consequences of synchronous flushing in a dry tropical forest. Biotropica, 16 193-201.
63. Loubry, D. (1994) La phénologie des arbres caducifoliés en forêt guyanaise (5° de latitude nord): Illustration d'un déterminisme à composantes endogène et exogène. Canadian Journal of Botany, 72, 1843-1857.
64. Lowman, M.D. (1992) Leaf growth dynamics and herbivory in five species of Australian rain-forest canopy trees. Journal of Ecology, 80, 433-447.
65. McKone, M.J., Kelly, D. & Lee, W.G. (in press) Climate change could decrease seed production of masting species via population responses by specialist seed-predator insects. Global Change Biology.
66. Melampy, M.N. (1987) Flowering phenology, pollen flow and fruit production in the Andean shrub Befaria resinosa. Oecologia, 73, 293-300.
67. Milton, K. (1991) Leaf change and fruit production in six neotropical Moraceae species. Journal of Ecology, 79, 1-26.
68. Molau, U., Eriksen, B & Knudsen, J.T. (1989) Pre-dispersal seed predation in Bartsia alpina. Oecologia, 81, 181-185.
69. Mopper, S. & Simberloff, D. (1995) Differential herbivory in an oak population: the role of plant phenology and insect performance. Ecology, 76, 1233-1241.
70. Morellato, P.C. & Leitao, H.F. (1996) Reproductive phenology of climbers in a south-eastern Brazilian forest. Biotropica, 28, 180-191.
71. Murali, K.S. & Sukumar, R. (1993) Leaf flushing phenology and herbivory in a tropical dry deciduous forest, southern India. Oecologia, 94, 114-119.
72. Murali, K.S. & Sukumar, R. (1994) Reproductive phenology of a tropical dry forest in Mudumalai, southern India. Journal of Ecology, 82, 759-767.
73. Newstrom, L.E., Frankie, G.W. & Baker, H.G. (1994) A new classification for plant phenology based on flowering patterns in lowland tropical rain forest trees at La Selva, Costa Rica. Biotropica, 26, 141-159.
74. Njoku, E. (1958) The photoperiodic response of some Nigerian plants. Journal of the West African Science Association, 4, 99-111.
75. Norton, D.A. & Kelly, D. (1988) Mast seeding over 33 years by Dacrydium cupressinum Lamb. (rimu) (Podocarpaceae) in New Zealand: the importance of economies of scale. Functional Ecology, 2, 399-408.
76. Peres, C.A. (1994) Primate responses to phenological changes in an Amazonian terre firme forest. Biotropica, 26, 98-112.
77. Pettersson, M.W. (1991) Flower herbivory and seed predation in Silene vulgaris (Caryophyllaceae): Effects of pollination and phenology. Holarctic Ecology, 14, 45-50.
78. Pleasants, J.M. (1980) Competition for bumblebee pollinators in Rocky mountain plant communities. Ecology, 61, 1446-1459.
79. Pleasants, J.M. (1990) Null models tests for competitive displacement: the fallacy of not focusing on the whole community. Ecology, 71, 1078-1084.
80. Poole, R.W. & Rathcke, B.J. (1979) Regularity, randomness, and aggregation in flowering phenologies. Science, 203, 470-471.
81. Porras, R.C. (1991) Phenology of Ouercus seemannii Lieb (Fagaceae) in Cartago, Costa Rica. Revista de Biologia Tropical, 39, 243-248.
82. Pors, B. & Werner, P.A. (1989) Individual flowering time in a goldenrod (Solidago canadensis): Field experiment shows genotype more important than environment. American Journal of Botany, 76, 1681-1688.
83. Primack, R.B. (1985) Patterns of flowering phenology in communities, populations, individuals and single flowers. The Population Structure of Vegetation (ed. J. White), pp. 571-593. Junk, Dordrecht.
84. Proença, C.E.B. & Gibbs, P.E. (1994) Reproductive biology of eight sympatric Myrtaceae from central Brazil. New Phytologist, 126, 343-354.
85. Putz, F.E. (1979) Aseasonality in Malaysian tree phenology. Malaysian Forester, 42, 1-24.
86. Quiring, D.T. (1994) Influence of inter-tree variation in time of budburst of white spruce on herbivory and the behaviour and survivorship of Zeiraphera canadensis. Ecological Entomology, 19, 17-25.
87. Rathcke, B.J. (1983) Competition and facilitation among plants for pollination. Pollination Biology (ed. L.A. Real), pp. 305-338. Academic Press, New York.
88. Rathcke, B.J. (1984) Patterns of flowering phenologies: testability and causal inference using a random model. Ecological Communities, Conceptual Issues and the Evidence (eds. D.R. Strong, D. Simberloff, L.G. Abele, & A.B. Thistle), pp. 383-393. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
89. Rathcke, B.J. (1988) Flowering phenologies in a shrub community: competition and constraints. Journal of Ecology, 76, 975-994.
90. Rathcke, B. J. & Lacey, E.P. (1985) Phenological patterns of terrestrial plants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 16, 179-214.
91. Reich, P.B. (1995) Phenology of tropical forests: patterns, causes, and consequences. Canadian Journal of Botany, 73, 164-174.
92. Rusch, V.E. (1993) Altitude variation in the phenology of Nothofagus pumilio in Argentina. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 66, 131-141.
93. Schemske, D.W. (1981) Floral convergence and pollinator sharing in two bee-pollinated tropical herbs. Ecology, 62, 946-954.
94. Schnelle, F. (1965-1986) Beiträge zur Phänologie Europas. Berichte des Deutschen Wetterdienstes, Offenbach (Main).
95. Schnelle, F. (1977) Ergebnisse aus den internationalen phänologischen Gärten. Berichte des Deutschen Wetterdienstes Nr. 144, Offenbach (Main).
96. Silvertown, J.W. (1980) The evolutionary ecology of mast seeding in trees. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 14, 235-250.
97. Singh, J.S. & Singh, V.K. (1992) Phenology of seasonally dry tropical forest. Current Science, 63, 684-689.
98. Smith-Ramirez, C. & Armesto, J.J. (1994) Flowering and fruiting patterns in the temperate rain-forest of Chiloe, Chile: ecologies and climatic constraints. Journal of Ecology, 82, 353-365.
99. Snow, D.W. (1971) Evolutionary aspects of fruit-eating birds. Ibis, 113, 194-202.
100. Steyn, H.M., Van Rooyen, N., Van Rooyen, M.W. & Theron, G.K. (1996) The phenology of Namaqualand ephemeral species: the effect of water-stress. Journal of Arid Environments, 33, 49-62.
101. Stiles, E.W. (1980) Patterns of fruit presentation and seed dispersal in bird-disseminated woody plants in the eastern deciduous forest. American Naturalist, 116, 670-686.
102. Stiles, F.G. (1977) Coadapted competitors: the flowering seasons of hummingbird-pollinated plants in a tropical forest. Science, 198, 1177-1178.
103. Stiles, F.G. (1979) Regularity, randomness, and aggregation in flowering phenologies: a reply. Science, 203, 471.
104. Terborgh, J. (1986) Community aspects of frugivory in tropical forests. Frugivores and Seed Dispersal (eds. A. Estrada & T. H. Fleming), pp. 371-384. Junk, Dordrecht.
105. Thompson, J.D. (1978) Effect of stand composition on insect visitation in two-species mixtures of Hieracium. American Midland Naturalist, 100, 431-440.
106. Thompson, J.D. (1981) Spatial and temporal components of resource assessment of flower-feeding insects. Journal of Animal Ecology, 50, 49-59.
107. Thompson, J.D. (1982) Pattern of visitation by animal pollinators. Oikos, 39, 241-250.
108. Thompson, J.N. & Willson, M.F. (1979) Evolution of temperate fruit/bird interactions: phenological strategies. Evolution, 33, 973-982.
109. Tissue, D.T. & Wright, S.J. (1995) Effect of seasonal water availability on phenology and the annual shoot carbohydrate cycle of tropical forest shrubs. Functional Ecology, 9, 518-527.
110. Totland, O. (1993) Pollination in alpine Norway: flowering phenology, insect visitors, and visitation rates in two plant communities. Canadian Journal of Botany, 71, 1072-1079.
111. Tutin, C.E.G. & Fernandez, M. (1993) Relationships between minimum temperature and fruit production in some tropical forest trees in Gabon. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 9, 241-248.
112. Van Schaik, C.P., Terborgh, J.W. & Wright, S.J. (1993) The phenology of tropical forests: adaptive significance and consequences for primary consumers. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 24, 353-377.
113. Waser, N.M. (1978a) Competition for pollination and sequential flowering in two Colorado wildflowers. Ecology, 59, 934-944.
114. Waser, N.M. (1978b) Interspecific pollen transfer and competition between co-occurring plant species. Oecologia, 36, 223-236.
115. Waser, N.M. (1983) Competition for pollination and floral character differences among sympatric plant species: a review of evidence. Handbook of Experimental Pollination Biology (eds. C.E. Jones & R.J. Little), pp. 277-293. Van Nostrand-Reinhold, New York.
116. Waser, N.M. & Real, L.A. (1979) Effective mutualism between sequentially flowering plant species. Nature, 281, 670-672.
117. White, L.M. (1995) Predicting flowering of 130 plants at eight locations with temperature and daylength. Journal of Range Management, 48, 108-114.
118. Widén, B. (1991) Environmental and genetic influences on phenology and plant size in a perennial herb, Senecio integrifolius. Canadian Journal of Botany, 69, 209-217.
119. Williams, R.J., Myers, B.A., Muller, W.J., Duff, G.A. & Eamus, D. (1997) Leaf phenology of woody species in a North Australian tropical savanna. Ecology, 78, 2542-2558.
120. Wright, S.J. (1991) Seasonal drought and the phenology of understory shrubs in a tropical moist forest. Ecology, 72, 1643-1657.
121. Wright, S.J. & Van Schaik, C.P. (1994) Light and the phenology of tropical trees. American Naturalist, 143 192-199.
122. Zimmerman, M. (1980) Reproduction in Polemonium. pre-dispersal seed predation. Ecology, 61, 502-506.
123. Zimmerman, M. (1988) Nectar production, flowering phenology, and strategies for pollination. Plant Reproductive Ecology (eds. J. Lovett-Doust & L. Lovett-Doust), pp. 157-178. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
124. Zimmerman, M. & Gross, R.S. (1984) The relationship between flowering phenology and seed set in an herbaceous perennial plant, Polemonium foliosissimum Gray. American Naturalist, 111, 185-191.