Near-field scanning optical microscopy

Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science

Volumn 1, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 485-492

  Buratto, Steven K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000232593     PISSN: 13590286     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1359-0286(96)80062-3     Document Type: Article

References (46)

1. Pohl DW: Scanning near-field optical microscopy. In Advances in Optical and Electron Microscopy. Edited by Sheppard CJR, Mulvey T. London: Academic; 1991, 12:243-312.
2. Betzig E, Trautman JK: Near-field optics-microscopy, spectroscopy and surface modification beyond the diffraction limit Science 1992, 257:189-195.
3. Courjon D, Bainer C: Near-field microscopy and near-field optics. Rep Prog Phys 1994, 57:989-1028.
4. Betzig E, Trautman JK, Harris TD, Weiner JS, Kostelak KL: Breaking the diffraction barrier: optical microscopy on a nanometric scale. Science 1991, 251:1468-1470.
5. Synge EH: Suggested method for extending microscopic resolution into the ultra-microscopic region. Phil Mag 1928, 6:356-362.
6. Valaskovic GA, Holton M, Morrison GH: Parameter control, characterization, and optimization in the fabrication of optical fiber near-field probes. Appl Opt 1995, 34:1215-1228. The authors provide a detailed description of the fabrication of NSOM fiber tips. They describe the dependence of the aperture size and the taper angle on the pulling parameters, the laser power and the laser beam waist at the fiber. They also correlate the shape of the tips and the aperture size with the transmission efficiency.
7. Trautman JK, Betzig E, Weiner JS, DiGiovanni DJ, Harris TD, Hellman F, Gyorgy EM: Image contrast in near-field optics. J Appl Phys 1992, 71:4659-4663.
8. Betzig E, Trautman JK, Wolfe R, Gyorgy EM, Finn PL, Kryder MH, Chang CH: Near-field magneto-optics and high density data storage. Appl Phys Lett 1992, 61:142-144.
9. ••]). Used NSOM photoconductivity and photovoltage to image threading dislocations in relaxed SiGe films. Found a strong correlation between the topography and the photovoltage signal implying that shallow depressions in the topography are threading dislocations.
10. ••]). Showed that near-field photoconductivity (NPC) maps minority carrier transport with high resolution. Also established a link between current leakage of the laser and the observed NPC image.
11. Binnig G, Rohrer H: Scanning tunneling microscopy. Helv Phys Acta 1982, 55:726-735.
12. Betzig E, Finn PL, Weiner JS: Combined shear force and near-field scanning optical microscopy. Appl Phys Lett 1992, 60:2484-2486.
13. Toledo-Crow R, Yang PC, Chen Y Vaez-Iravani M: Near-field differential scanning optical microscope with atomic force regulation. Appl Phys Lett 1992, 60:2957-2959.
14. Grober RD, Harris TD, Trautman JK, Betzig E, Wegscheider W, Pfeiffer L, West K: Optical spectroscopy of a GaAs/AlGaAs quantum wire structure using near-field scanning optical microscopy. Appl Phys Lett 1994, 64:1421-1423. The first low temperature application of NSOM to semiconductor quantum structures. The authors were able to assign peaks observed in the far-field spectrum to their place of origin (quantum wire, (110) single-quantum well, or (100) multi-quantum well). Established a correlation between the linewidth of the SOW and the quantum wire emission. Also measured diffusion lengths at low temperature.
15. Hess HF, Betzig E, Harris TD, Pfeiffer LN, West K: Near-field spectroscopy of the quantum constituents of a luminescent system. Science 1994, 264:1740-1745. Used low temperature PL-NSOM to show that the far-field spectrum of narrow quantum wells is the spatial average of many distinct luminescence centers. The luminescence centers are formed due to a corrugated interface which has been seen via TEM. The diffusion radius and oscillator strength of the luminescence center could also be deduced from the data.
16. Ghaemi HF, Goldberg BB, Cates C, Wang PD, and others: Spectroscopy of individual quantum structures with low-temperature near-field optical microscopy. Superlattice Microstruct 1995, 17:15-18.
17. ••], except both near-field excitation and near-field collection were used. In this way the authors were able to detect single quantum wires and establish that distinct luminescence centers dominate the far-field luminescence spectrum of the quantum wires and wells in the sample.
18. Levy J, Nikitin V, Kikkawa JM, Cohen A, Samarth N, Garcia R, Awschalom DD: Spatiotemporal near-field spin microscopy in patterned magnetic heterostructures. Phys Rev Lett 1996, 76:1948-1951. Used both high spatial as well as high temporal resolution top probe exciton spin dynamics in patterned magnetic heterostructures. A high density of results in this letter including many fundamental aspects of NSOM. Performed experiments in collection mode and showed that the detected polarization in the NSOM tip decreased with decreasing tip-sample gap.
19. Levy J, Nikitin V, Kikkawa JM, Cohen A, Samarth N, Garcia R, Awschalom DD: J Appl Phys 1996, 79:6095-6100. See annotation to [18].
20. Hsu JWP, Fitzgerald EA, Xie YH, Silverman PJ : Studies of electrically active defects in relaxed GeSi films using a near-field scanning optical microscope. J Appl Phys 1996, 79:7743-7750. See annotation to [9].
21. Gregor MJ, Blome PG, Ulbrich RG, Grossmann P, Grosse S, Feldmann J, Stolz W, Gsbel EO, Arent DJ, Bose M, Bertness KA, Olson JM: Near-field optical characterization of the photoluminescence from partially ordered (GaIn)P. Appl Phys Lett 1995, 67:3572-3574.
22. Rogers JK, Seiferth F, Vaez-Iravani M: Near-field probe microscopy of porous silicon-observation of spectral shifts in photoluminescence of small particles. Appl Phys Lett 1995, 66:3260-3262. Applied NSOM techniques to porous silicon and observed shifts in the lumi-nescence consistent with the quantum confinement model for porous silicon luminescence.
23. Isaacson M, Cline JA, Barshatzky H: Near-field scanning optical microscopy II. J Vac Sci Technol B 1991, 9:3103-3107.
24. Buratto SK, Hsu JWP, Trautman JK, Betzig E, Bylsma RB, Bahr CC, Cardillo MJ: Imaging InGaAsP quantum-well lasers using near-field scanning optical microscopy. J Appl Phys 1994, 76:7720-7725. Showed that collection mode NSOM could be used to measure the near-field pattern of semiconductor lasers with high resolution. Observed mode splitting and pinpointed electroluminescence outside the active region which were undetected by conventional far-field microscopy.
25. Buratto SK, Hsu JWP, Dhar L, Trautman JK, Bylsma RB, Bahr CC, Cardillo MJ: Surface science applied to lasers: near-field optical microscopy. SPIE Proc 1995, 2547:279-284. Similar to 10 and 24.
26. Goldberg BB, Unlu MS, Herzog WD, Ghaemi HF: Near-field optical studies of semiconductor heterostructures and laser diodes. IEEE J Quant Electr 1996, 1:1073-1081.
27. DeAro JA, Weston KD, Buratto SK, Herrick RW, Petroff PM: Near-field scanning optical microscopy of cleaved vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers. Appl Phys Lett 1996, in press. The authors apply collection mode NSOM and NFOS to confirm mirror luminescence in cleaved vertical cavity surface emitting lasers. The observed luminescence in the DBR mirrors was shown to be stronger on the p-DBR side of the active region and peaked approximately 400 nm from the active region. The results also support the optical pumping model for mirror luminescence.
28. Unlu MS, Goldberg BB, Herzog WD, Sun D, Towe E: Near-field optical beam induced current measurements on heterostructures. Appl Phys Lett 1995, 67:1862-1864. Showed that the observed contrast in near-field photoconductivity is strongly dependent on absorption length in semiconductors due to their high dielectric constants.
29. Higgins DA, Barbara PF: Excitonic transitions in j-aggregates probed by near-field scanning optical microscopy. J Phys Chem 1995,99:3-7. Demonstrated that NSOM could be applied to molecular aggregates in polymer matrices to observe nanoscale structure and exciton diffusion. Results show a uniform molecular structure in the aggregates.
30. •] to include polarized absorption and fluorescence NSOM. From these results, established a model for molecular ordering within the aggregate that is similar to a herringbone pattern.
31. Bimbaum D, Kook SK, Kopelman R: Near-field scanning optical spectroscopy-spatially resolved spectra of microcrystals and nanoaggregates in doped polymers. J Phys Chem 1993, 97:3091-3094.
32. Ade H, Toledo-Crow R, Vaez-Iravani M, Spontak RJ: Observation of polymer birefringence in near-field optical microscopy. Langmuir 1996, 12:231-234. Used nonresonant NSOM transmission to measure order in Kevlar films.
33. M1. These experiments also show a wealth of new structure. The importance of these experiments is that the data represent a dramatic improvement in resolution which yields new structures and important new insights into the structure of these synthetic membranes.
34. Betzig E, Chichester RJ: Single molecules observed by near-field scanning optical microscopy. Science 1994, 262:1422-1425. First observation of single molecules by NSOM. The authors show that the observed emission pattern under polarized light excitation can be modeled by the Bethe-Boukamp model of circular apertures. Using this model it was possible to determine the dipole orientation with respect to the surface normal, an important parameter in surface science.
35. Trautman JK, Macklin JJ, Brus LE, Betzig E: Near-field spectroscopy of single molecules at room temperature. Nature 1994, 369:40-42. Observed the room temperature spectrum of single dye molecules on surfaces. Related spectral shifts and lineshapes to different orientations on the polymer surface. Also calculated the photobleaching probability of single molecules.
36. ••]) photobleaching and spectroscopy of single dye molecules at a silica surface.
37. Xie XS, Dunn RC: Probing Single Molecule Dynamics. Science 1994, 265:361-364. Used fluorescence lifetime measurements to show that the metal on the NSOM tip quenches the molecular excited state due to its close proximity. This data indicates that the NSOM tip is not an innocent bystander in a photoexcitation event and its effect must be taken into account.
38. Ambrose WP, Goodwin PM, Martin JC, Keller RA: Alternations of single molecule fluorescence lifetimes in near-field optical microscopy. Science 1994, 265:364-367. Similar results to reference 37.
39. Moemer WE, Plakhotnik T, Irngartinger T, Wild UP, Pohl DW, Hecht B: Near-field optical spectroscopy of individual molecules in solids. Phys Rev Lett 1994, 73:2764-2767. First single molecule spectroscopy with NSOM at low temperature. Used a DC voltage on the metal of the NSOM tip to induce a Stark shift of the pentacene molecules near the p-terphenyl crystal surface in a guest-host arrangement.
40. Hsu JWP, McDaniel EB: Nanometer Scale Optical Studies of Twin Domains and Defects in Lanthanum Aluminate Crystals. J Appl Phys 1996, 79:7743-7750. Used polarized light NSOM to measure grain boundaries and stress-induced birefringence in lanthanum aluminate crystals.
41. Jahncke CL, Paesler MA, Hallen HD: Raman imaging with near-field scanning optical microscopy. Appl Phys Lett 1995, 67:2483-2485. First Raman imaging experiment using an aperture NSOM tip.
42. Gutmannsbauer W, Huser T, Lacoste T, Heinzelamnn H, Güntherodt HJ: Scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM) and its application in mineralogy. Schweiz Mineral Petrogr Mitt 1995, 75:259-264.
43. Butler DJ, Nugent KA, Roberts A: Characterization of optical fibers using near-field scanning optical microscopy. J Appl Phys 1994, 75:2753-2756.
44. Butler DJ, Horsfall A, Nugent KA, Roberts A, Bassett IM, Lo KM: Measurement of an elliptical fiber mode field using near-field microscopy. J Appl Phys 1995, 77:5514-5517. Used collection mode NSOM to image the mode profile of polarization preserving fiber with an elliptically-shaped fiber core.
45. Dhar L, Lee HJ, Laskowski EJ, Buratto SK, Narayanan C, Presby HM, Bahr CC, Anthony PJ, Cardillo MJ: Refractive index profiling of planar optical waveguides using near-field scanning optical microscopy. SPIE Proc 1995, 2535:120-124.
46. Choo AG, Jackson HE, Thiel U, De Brabander GN, Boyd JT: Near-field measurements of optical channel waveguides and directional couplers. Appl Phys Lett 1994, 65:947-949. Used colection mode NSOM to measure the evanescent field of a planar optical waveguides and directional couplers.