Marketing legitimacy in rural Mozambique: The case of Mecúfi district, northern Mozambique

Journal of Modern African Studies

Volumn 36, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 569-590

  Harrison, Graham ^a  

^a QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000221006     PISSN: 0022278X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0022278x98002924     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. A useful review is provided by William Munro, ' Power, peasants and political development : reconsidering state construction in Africa', Comparative Studies in Society and History 38, 1 (1996).
2. For example, in respect to Mozambique, Pitcher highlights the centrality of gender relations in peasant marketing of cotton and the management of cotton revenues. Anne Pitcher, 'Conflict and cooperation: gendered roles and responsibilities within cotton households in northern Mozambique', African Studies Review 39, 3 (1996).
3. See, inter alia, Sarah Berry, No Condition is Permanent (Madison, WI, 1993) ; Gavin Kitching, Class and Economic Change in Kenya: the Making of an Africa Petite Petite Bourgeoisie (New Haven, CT, 1980); Kristin Mann and Richard Roberts (eds.), Cotton, Colonialism, and Social History in SubSaharan Africa (Oxford, 1995).
4. See, inter alia, Sarah Berry, No Condition is Permanent (Madison, WI, 1993) ; Gavin Kitching, Class and Economic Change in Kenya: the Making of an Africa Petite Petite Bourgeoisie (New Haven, CT, 1980); Kristin Mann and Richard Roberts (eds.), Cotton, Colonialism, and Social History in SubSaharan Africa (Oxford, 1995).
5. See, inter alia, Sarah Berry, No Condition is Permanent (Madison, WI, 1993) ; Gavin Kitching, Class and Economic Change in Kenya: the Making of an Africa Petite Petite Bourgeoisie (New Haven, CT, 1980); Kristin Mann and Richard Roberts (eds.), Cotton, Colonialism, and Social History in SubSaharan Africa (Oxford, 1995).
6. Martin Doornbos, 'The state in academic debate : retrospect and prospect', Journal of Modern African Studies 28, 2 (1991); John S. Saul, 'The state in post-colonial societies: Tanzania', Socialist Register (London, 1974).
7. Martin Doornbos, 'The state in academic debate : retrospect and prospect', Journal of Modern African Studies 28, 2 (1991); John S. Saul, 'The state in post-colonial societies: Tanzania', Socialist Register (London, 1974).
8. Gavin Williams, ' Taking the part of peasants : rural development in Nigeria and Tanzania ', in Peter Gutkind and Immanuel Wallerstein (eds,), The Political Economy of Contemporary Africa (London, 1976), p. 131.
9. Henry Bernstein, 'Notes on the state and peasantry: the Tanzanian case', Review of African Political Economy 21 (1981). On modernisation, rural development policy, and some comparison between Tanzania and Mozambique, see Phil Raikes, 'Food policy and production in Mozambique since independence', Review of African Political Economy 29 (1984).
10. Henry Bernstein, 'Notes on the state and peasantry: the Tanzanian case', Review of African Political Economy 21 (1981). On modernisation, rural development policy, and some comparison between Tanzania and Mozambique, see Phil Raikes, 'Food policy and production in Mozambique since independence', Review of African Political Economy 29 (1984).
11. Williams, 'Taking the part of peasants', p. 132.
12. Janet MacGaffey, The Real Economy of Zaire (Oxford, 1991) ; Donald Rothchild and Naomi Chazan (eds.), The Precious Balance: State and Society in Africa (Boulder, CO, 1988).
13. Janet MacGaffey, The Real Economy of Zaire (Oxford, 1991) ; Donald Rothchild and Naomi Chazan (eds.), The Precious Balance: State and Society in Africa (Boulder, CO, 1988).
14. Berry, No condition, p. 53, calls this the use of 'multiple channels'. See also Phillip De Boeck, 'Postcolonialism, power and identity; local and global perspectives from Zaire', in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (eds.), Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London, 1996).
15. Berry, No condition, p. 53, calls this the use of 'multiple channels'. See also Phillip De Boeck, 'Postcolonialism, power and identity; local and global perspectives from Zaire', in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (eds.), Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London, 1996).
16. See, for example, Britha Mikklesen, Methods for Development Work and Research: A Guide for Practitioners (Beverly Hills and London, 1995), p. 120; Paul Nichols, Social Survey Methods: A Field Guide for Development Workers (Oxford, 1991), p. 13.
17. See, for example, Britha Mikklesen, Methods for Development Work and Research: A Guide for Practitioners (Beverly Hills and London, 1995), p. 120; Paul Nichols, Social Survey Methods: A Field Guide for Development Workers (Oxford, 1991), p. 13.
18. Garry Christensen, 'Sensitive information: collecting data on livestock and informal credit', in Stephen Devereux and John Hoddinott (eds.), Fieldiwork in Developing Countries (Sussex, 1992); Ken Wilson, 'Thinking about the ethics of fieldwork', in ibid., p. 187.
19. Garry Christensen, 'Sensitive information: collecting data on livestock and informal credit', in Stephen Devereux and John Hoddinott (eds.), Fieldiwork in Developing Countries (Sussex, 1992); Ken Wilson, 'Thinking about the ethics of fieldwork', in ibid., p. 187.
20. Paul Thompson, The Voice of the Past : Oral history (Oxford, 1978) ; Jan Vansina, Oral Tradition as History (London, 1985); David Cohen and E. S. Atieno Odhiambo, Siayo: The Historical Anthropology of an African Landscape (London, 1989).
21. Paul Thompson, The Voice of the Past : Oral history (Oxford, 1978) ; Jan Vansina, Oral Tradition as History (London, 1985); David Cohen and E. S. Atieno Odhiambo, Siayo: The Historical Anthropology of an African Landscape (London, 1989).
22. Paul Thompson, The Voice of the Past : Oral history (Oxford, 1978) ; Jan Vansina, Oral Tradition as History (London, 1985); David Cohen and E. S. Atieno Odhiambo, Siayo: The Historical Anthropology of an African Landscape (London, 1989).
23. See Fernando Pilião, Moçambique: Evolução da Toponomia e da Divisão Territorial, 1974-1987 (Maputo, 1989).
24. Jorge Alberto Paissene, et al., Monografias dos Distritos da Provincia de Cabo Delgado (Pemba, 1993).
25. Conselho Coordenador de Recenseamento, Os Distritos em Numeros, 2 : Cabo Delgado (Maputo, 1983).
26. United Nations Office of Humanitarian Coordination, Map Series, ' Most cultivated crop by distinct', p. 16 (Maputo, 1994).
27. Fernando de Mira with Jorge F. Graça, Aspectos da Realidade Socio-Economica de Mecufi (Cabo Delgado 1995); John Hatton and Antonio Massinga, Os Recursos Naturais do Distriio de Mecufi (Maputo, 1994), p. 22. Since this report, the National Environment Commission has been dissolved and a new Ministry of Environmental Coordination (Ministry of de Coordenação Ambiental) has been created.
28. Fernando de Mira with Jorge F. Graça, Aspectos da Realidade Socio-Economica de Mecufi (Cabo Delgado 1995); John Hatton and Antonio Massinga, Os Recursos Naturais do Distriio de Mecufi (Maputo, 1994), p. 22. Since this report, the National Environment Commission has been dissolved and a new Ministry of Environmental Coordination (Ministry of de Coordenação Ambiental) has been created.
29. See here the works of Irâe Baptista Lundin, for example, Uma Visão Sobre o Problema da Terra na Zona de Namuno, Balama e Montepuez em Babo Delgado, Uma Nova Apreciação sobre os Dados Colhidos para a avaliçfão do Projecto ARO-NAMUNO (Maputo, 1990) ; 'Realidades socio-culturais e modelos sócio-politicos : um problema da democratização', in José Magode (ed.), Moçambique: Etnicidades, Nacionalismo e o Estado : Transição Inacabada (Maputo, 1996) ; F. Lerma Martinez, O Povo Makua e a Sua Cultura (Lisbon, 1989).
30. See here the works of Irâe Baptista Lundin, for example, Uma Visão Sobre o Problema da Terra na Zona de Namuno, Balama e Montepuez em Babo Delgado, Uma Nova Apreciação sobre os Dados Colhidos para a avaliçfão do Projecto ARO-NAMUNO (Maputo, 1990) ; 'Realidades socio-culturais e modelos sócio-politicos : um problema da democratização', in José Magode (ed.), Moçambique: Etnicidades, Nacionalismo e o Estado : Transição Inacabada (Maputo, 1996) ; F. Lerma Martinez, O Povo Makua e a Sua Cultura (Lisbon, 1989).
31. See here the works of Irâe Baptista Lundin, for example, Uma Visão Sobre o Problema da Terra na Zona de Namuno, Balama e Montepuez em Babo Delgado, Uma Nova Apreciação sobre os Dados Colhidos para a avaliçfão do Projecto ARO-NAMUNO (Maputo, 1990) ; 'Realidades socio-culturais e modelos sócio-politicos : um problema da democratização', in José Magode (ed.), Moçambique: Etnicidades, Nacionalismo e o Estado : Transição Inacabada (Maputo, 1996) ; F. Lerma Martinez, O Povo Makua e a Sua Cultura (Lisbon, 1989).
32. On Islam in Makua society, see Edward Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Africa (London, 1975) ; F. Mbwiliza, A History of Commodity Production in Makuani, 1600-1900 (Dar es Salaam, 1991); Eduarde Medeiros, As Etapas da Escravatura no Notre de Moçambique (Maputo, 1988).
33. On Islam in Makua society, see Edward Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Africa (London, 1975) ; F. Mbwiliza, A History of Commodity Production in Makuani, 1600-1900 (Dar es Salaam, 1991); Eduarde Medeiros, As Etapas da Escravatura no Notre de Moçambique (Maputo, 1988).
34. On Islam in Makua society, see Edward Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Africa (London, 1975) ; F. Mbwiliza, A History of Commodity Production in Makuani, 1600-1900 (Dar es Salaam, 1991); Eduarde Medeiros, As Etapas da Escravatura no Notre de Moçambique (Maputo, 1988).
35. In another context, see Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation (Boston, MA, 1957); J. Habermas, 'Problems of legitimation in late capitalism' in P. Connerton (ed.), Critical Sociology (London, 1976).
36. In another context, see Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation (Boston, MA, 1957); J. Habermas, 'Problems of legitimation in late capitalism' in P. Connerton (ed.), Critical Sociology (London, 1976).
37. For example, Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject (London, 1996).
38. Chris Allen, 'Understanding African polities', Review of African Political Economy 22, 65 (1995)
39. Jean-François Bayart, The State in Africa: the Politics of the Belly (London, 1993).
40. See Gavin Williams, 'Why structural adjustment is necessary and why it doesn't work', Review of African Political Economy 21 60 (1994).
41. William Reno, ' African weak states and commercial alliances ', African Affairs 96, 383 (1997)
42. Finn Tarp, 'Prices in Mozambican agriculture', Journal of International Development, 2, 2 (1990), 174 ; João Cravinho, ' Modernizing Mozambique, Frelimo Ideology and the Frelimo State ' DPhil., Oxford, 1995), p. 237 et. seq.
43. Finn Tarp, 'Prices in Mozambican agriculture', Journal of International Development, 2, 2 (1990), 174 ; João Cravinho, ' Modernizing Mozambique, Frelimo Ideology and the Frelimo State ' DPhil., Oxford, 1995), p. 237 et. seq.
44. See, for example, Maureen Mackintosh, ' Agricultural marketing and socialist accumulation : a case study of maize marketing in Mozambique', Journal of Peasant Studies 14, 2 (1987).
45. Fernando J. Cardoso, Gestão e Desenvolvimento. Moçambique no Contexte da Africa Sub-Sahariana (Porto, 1993), p. 146.
46. One should recognise that this collapse in the early 1980s was a result of South Africa's rejuvenation of Renamo which - whether proxy war or militarised peasant discontent - profoundly modified Frelimo's relations with the countryside.
47. Robert Nsubuga, Country Report of Mozambique about Agricultural Marketing Adjustment Policy in Africa (Maputo, 1988).
48. Mozambiqueflie (Maputo), July 1997.
49. Stockholm Group for Development Studies Market Intervention and Pricing Policies for Agricultural Marketing in Mozambique (Stockholm, 1989), pp. 3, 14, 36; Yussuf Adam and Teresa Cruz e Silva, Markets and Prices in the Rural Areas (Maputo, 1989), p. 21; Vincent Tickner, ' Structural adjustment and agricultural pricing in Mozambique ' Review of African Political Economy 53 (1992).
50. Stockholm Group for Development Studies Market Intervention and Pricing Policies for Agricultural Marketing in Mozambique (Stockholm, 1989), pp. 3, 14, 36; Yussuf Adam and Teresa Cruz e Silva, Markets and Prices in the Rural Areas (Maputo, 1989), p. 21; Vincent Tickner, ' Structural adjustment and agricultural pricing in Mozambique ' Review of African Political Economy 53 (1992).
51. Stockholm Group for Development Studies Market Intervention and Pricing Policies for Agricultural Marketing in Mozambique (Stockholm, 1989), pp. 3, 14, 36; Yussuf Adam and Teresa Cruz e Silva, Markets and Prices in the Rural Areas (Maputo, 1989), p. 21; Vincent Tickner, ' Structural adjustment and agricultural pricing in Mozambique ' Review of African Political Economy 53 (1992).
52. René Pélissier, História de Moçambique: Formaçã;o e Oposição 1854-1918 (Lisbon, 1994) p. 327 et seq.
53. Nancy Hafkin, 'Trade, Society, and Politics in Northern Mozambique (c. 1753-1913)', Ph.D, Boston University, 1973; Norman Bennet, 'Zanzibar, Portugal, e Moçambique: Relaçães dos fins do século dezoito até 1890', Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 6/7 (1987).
54. Nancy Hafkin, 'Trade, Society, and Politics in Northern Mozambique (c. 1753-1913)', Ph.D, Boston University, 1973; Norman Bennet, 'Zanzibar, Portugal, e Moçambique: Relaçães dos fins do século dezoito até 1890', Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 6/7 (1987).
55. René Pélissier, História de Moçambique, pp. 356 et seq. ; Leroy Vail, ' Mozambique's chartered companies: the rule of the feeble'. Journal of African History 17, 3 (1976) ; Barry Neil-Tomlinson, 'The Nyassa Chartered Company: 1891-1929', Journal of African History 18, 1 (1977); Richard Stuart, Os Nyanja, o UMCA e a Companhia do Niassa, 1880-1930', Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 3 (1985); Eduardo Medeiros, História de Cabo Delgado e do Niassa (c. 1836-1929) (Maputo, 1997).
56. René Pélissier, História de Moçambique, pp. 356 et seq. ; Leroy Vail, ' Mozambique's chartered companies: the rule of the feeble'. Journal of African History 17, 3 (1976) ; Barry Neil-Tomlinson, 'The Nyassa Chartered Company: 1891-1929', Journal of African History 18, 1 (1977); Richard Stuart, Os Nyanja, o UMCA e a Companhia do Niassa, 1880-1930', Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 3 (1985); Eduardo Medeiros, História de Cabo Delgado e do Niassa (c. 1836-1929) (Maputo, 1997).
57. René Pélissier, História de Moçambique, pp. 356 et seq. ; Leroy Vail, ' Mozambique's chartered companies: the rule of the feeble'. Journal of African History 17, 3 (1976) ; Barry Neil-Tomlinson, 'The Nyassa Chartered Company: 1891-1929', Journal of African History 18, 1 (1977); Richard Stuart, Os Nyanja, o UMCA e a Companhia do Niassa, 1880-1930', Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 3 (1985); Eduardo Medeiros, História de Cabo Delgado e do Niassa (c. 1836-1929) (Maputo, 1997).
58. René Pélissier, História de Moçambique, pp. 356 et seq. ; Leroy Vail, ' Mozambique's chartered companies: the rule of the feeble'. Journal of African History 17, 3 (1976) ; Barry Neil-Tomlinson, 'The Nyassa Chartered Company: 1891-1929', Journal of African History 18, 1 (1977); Richard Stuart, Os Nyanja, o UMCA e a Companhia do Niassa, 1880-1930', Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 3 (1985); Eduardo Medeiros, História de Cabo Delgado e do Niassa (c. 1836-1929) (Maputo, 1997).
59. René Pélissier, História de Moçambique, pp. 356 et seq. ; Leroy Vail, ' Mozambique's chartered companies: the rule of the feeble'. Journal of African History 17, 3 (1976) ; Barry Neil-Tomlinson, 'The Nyassa Chartered Company: 1891-1929', Journal of African History 18, 1 (1977); Richard Stuart, Os Nyanja, o UMCA e a Companhia do Niassa, 1880-1930', Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 3 (1985); Eduardo Medeiros, História de Cabo Delgado e do Niassa (c. 1836-1929) (Maputo, 1997).
60. Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty. Peasants Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Oxford, 1996).
61. Stockholm Group for Development Studies Market Intervention and Pricing Policies for Agricultural Marketing in Mozambique (Stockholm, 1989), pp. 3, 14, 36; Yussuf Adam and Teresa Cruz e Silva, Markets and Prices in the Rural Areas (Maputo, 1989), p. 21; Vincent Tickner, ' Structural adjustment and agricultural pricing in Mozambique' Review of African Political Economy 53 (1992).
62. Stockholm Group for Development Studies Market Intervention and Pricing Policies for Agricultural Marketing in Mozambique (Stockholm, 1989), pp. 3, 14, 36; Yussuf Adam and Teresa Cruz e Silva, Markets and Prices in the Rural Areas (Maputo, 1989), p. 21; Vincent Tickner, ' Structural adjustment and agricultural pricing in Mozambique' Review of African Political Economy 53 (1992).
63. Stockholm Group for Development Studies Market Intervention and Pricing Policies for Agricultural Marketing in Mozambique (Stockholm, 1989), pp. 3, 14, 36; Yussuf Adam and Teresa Cruz e Silva, Markets and Prices in the Rural Areas (Maputo, 1989), p. 21; Vincent Tickner, ' Structural adjustment and agricultural pricing in Mozambique' Review of African Political Economy 53 (1992).
64. René Pélissier, História de Moçambique: Formação e Oposição 1854-1916 (Lisbon, 1994) p. 327 et seq.
65. Nancy Hafkin, 'Trade, Society, and Politics in Northern Mozambique (c. 1753-1913)', Ph.D, Boston University, 1973; Norman Bennet, 'Zanzibar, Portugal, e Moçambique: Relaçã̃es dos fins do século dezoito até 1890', Revista International de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 6/7 (1987).
66. Nancy Hafkin, 'Trade, Society, and Politics in Northern Mozambique (c. 1753-1913)', Ph.D, Boston University, 1973; Norman Bennet, 'Zanzibar, Portugal, e Moçambique: Relaçã̃es dos fins do século dezoito até 1890', Revista International de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 6/7 (1987).
67. René Pélissier, Historia de Moçambique, pp. 356 et seq. ; Leroy Vail, ' Mozambique's chartered companies: the rule of the feeble'. Journal of African History 17, 3 (1976) ; Barry Neil-Tomlinson, 'The Nyassa Chartered Company: 1891-1929', Journal of African History 18, 1 (1977); Richard Stuart, 'Os Nyanja, o UMCA e a Companhia do Niassa, 1880-1930', Revista International de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 3 (1985); Eduardo Medeiros, História de Cabo Delgado e do Niassa (c. 1836-1929) (Maputo, 1997).
68. René Pélissier, Historia de Moçambique, pp. 356 et seq. ; Leroy Vail, ' Mozambique's chartered companies: the rule of the feeble'. Journal of African History 17, 3 (1976) ; Barry Neil-Tomlinson, 'The Nyassa Chartered Company: 1891-1929', Journal of African History 18, 1 (1977); Richard Stuart, 'Os Nyanja, o UMCA e a Companhia do Niassa, 1880-1930', Revista International de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 3 (1985); Eduardo Medeiros, História de Cabo Delgado e do Niassa (c. 1836-1929) (Maputo, 1997).
69. René Pélissier, Historia de Moçambique, pp. 356 et seq. ; Leroy Vail, ' Mozambique's chartered companies: the rule of the feeble'. Journal of African History 17, 3 (1976) ; Barry Neil-Tomlinson, 'The Nyassa Chartered Company: 1891-1929', Journal of African History 18, 1 (1977); Richard Stuart, 'Os Nyanja, o UMCA e a Companhia do Niassa, 1880-1930', Revista International de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 3 (1985); Eduardo Medeiros, História de Cabo Delgado e do Niassa (c. 1836-1929) (Maputo, 1997).
70. René Pélissier, Historia de Moçambique, pp. 356 et seq. ; Leroy Vail, ' Mozambique's chartered companies: the rule of the feeble'. Journal of African History 17, 3 (1976) ; Barry Neil-Tomlinson, 'The Nyassa Chartered Company: 1891-1929', Journal of African History 18, 1 (1977); Richard Stuart, 'Os Nyanja, o UMCA e a Companhia do Niassa, 1880-1930', Revista International de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 3 (1985); Eduardo Medeiros, História de Cabo Delgado e do Niassa (c. 1836-1929) (Maputo, 1997).
71. René Pélissier, Historia de Moçambique, pp. 356 et seq. ; Leroy Vail, ' Mozambique's chartered companies: the rule of the feeble'. Journal of African History 17, 3 (1976) ; Barry Neil-Tomlinson, 'The Nyassa Chartered Company: 1891-1929', Journal of African History 18, 1 (1977); Richard Stuart, 'Os Nyanja, o UMCA e a Companhia do Niassa, 1880-1930', Revista International de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon) 3 (1985); Eduardo Medeiros, História de Cabo Delgado e do Niassa (c. 1836-1929) (Maputo, 1997).
72. Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty. Peasants Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Oxford, 1996).
73. Insp. Amadeu Pacheco de Amorim, Relatorio da Circunscrição de Mecú no Distrito de Cabo Delgado, de 1951 a 1960 (Lourenço Marques, 1961), p. 21.
74. Census, 1960 in Fernando M. Chambino, Subversão em Cabo Delgado. Contribuição para um Estudo' thesis, Universidate Técnica de Lisboa, 1968); Conselho Coordenador de Recenseamento, Cabo Delgado.
75. Census, 1960 in Fernando M. Chambino, Subversão em Cabo Delgado. Contribuição para um Estudo' thesis, Universidate Técnica de Lisboa, 1968); Conselho Coordenador de Recenseamento, Cabo Delgado.
76. Interview, shopkeeper, Morrébue, 1995.
77. Amorim, Relatório, pp. 20-7 ; various interviews.
78. Graham Harrison, 'Quantos Somos? The Second National Population Census of Mozambique', Review of African Political Economy 25, 75 (1998).
79. Various interviews. See also Isaacman, Cotton.
80. Graham Harrison, 'Democracy in Mozambique: the significance of multiparty elections', Review of African Political Economy 23, 67 (1996).
81. For example, interview with village joint president, Muária, 9 July 1997.
82. Group interview, Quitivahulo, 30 July 1997; interview, 3 men and a woman, Sassalane 22 July 1997.
83. Interview, old man Muária, 12 July 1997; interview, carpenter, Sassalane, 22 July 1997.
84. Hatton and Massinga, Os Recursos Naturais, p. 23.
85. Group interview, Sassalane, 22 July 1997.
86. Governo do Distrito de Cabo Delgado Relatório Anual (Lourenço Marques, 1970), pp. 127-9.
87. Interview, lorry owner and transporter who took cashew from Mecúfi district capital to Porto Amélia, Pemba, 8 April 1995.
88. Interview, Muária, 12 July 1997.
89. Amorim, Relatório, p. 31. This source is not quoted as a true representation of the time, but it is notable that the writer is making a relative judgement, and so is not merely painting a rosy picture of Cabo Delgado, but is saying something specifically about Mecufi and the importance of cashew.
90. Paulo Soares, ' Da " provo do trabalho " ao Bilhete de Identidade : A Integração de Ocua na Econorma de Mercado Colonial (1942-1960)', Arquivo (Maputo) 14 (1993).
91. Anne Pitcher, ' From coercion to incentives : the Portuguese colonial cotton regime in Angola and Mozambique, 1946-1974', in Issacman and Roberts, Cotton, Colonialism.
92. Ibid. p. 138.
93. Soares, 'Da "prova do trabalho"', pp. 166-6.
94. Roberto Tibana, 'Agriculture and food policy in Mozambique', in Richard Mkandawire and Matlosa (eds.), Food Policy and Agriculture in Southern Africa (Harare, 1993), p. 155, table 4.
95. António Rita Ferreira, Evolufção da Mão-de-Obra e das Renumerações, No Sector Privado, em Moçambique, desde 1950 a 1970 (Lourenço Marques, 1971), Table 46.
96. Amodeu Pacheco de Amorim, Relatório de Inspeção Ordinária ao Concelho de Porto Ameĺia no Distrito de Cabo Delgado, 1951-60 (Lourenço Marques) pp. 22 et seq.
97. Interview, old man, Sassalane, 22 July 1997.
98. Munslow puts the total number of those in aldeamentos in Cabo Delgado at 270,000, or half of the province's population. See Barry Munslow, 'Frelimo and the Mozambican Revolution' Ph.D. thesis, Manchester, 1980), p. 409, Table 1.
99. Interview, shopkeeper, Muinde 17 July 1997.
100. Interview, Manuel Basilio Canas, Pemba, 1 Aug. 1997.
101. Group interview, Zaulane, 16 May 1995.
102. Robert Tibana, 'The politics of Mozambique's famine. Gaps in socialist policies and the South African war', Paper, PSA conference, Plymouth, 1988, p. 24; Tarp, ' Prices in Mozambican agriculture', especially table 3.
103. Robert Tibana, 'The politics of Mozambique's famine. Gaps in socialist policies and the South African war', Paper, PSA conference, Plymouth, 1988, p. 24; Tarp, ' Prices in Mozambican agriculture', especially table 3.
104. Marc Wuyts, 'The mechanisation of present-day Mozambican agriculture' Development and Change 12 (1981).
105. On southern Mozambique, see Ruth First, Black Gold: the Mozambican Miner, Proletarian or Peasant? (Sussex, 1983).
106. Amorim, Relatório, p. 4.
107. André Massinga et al., Diagnostico Rápide de Natuco (Maputo, 1993), p. 39.
108. Cabo Delgado: Hora de Aranque', Tempo (Maputo), 30 Nov. 1980.
109. Eric Regouin, Relatório de uma Missão de Consultória no Sector Agrdrio em Dois Distritos da Provincia de Caba Delgado (Pemba, 1987).
110. Group interview, Muinde, 17 July 1997.
111. Interview, president of OMM (Organização de Mulher Moçambicana), Sassalne, 22 July 1997.
112. Alternative marketing possibilities are mooted by João Cravinho, ' Modernization and the politics of agriculture', paper, Southern Africa Seminar, School of Geography, Oxford, 30 November 1994.
113. The dualised nature of Frelimo's vision of rural transformation has been well covered : see Wuyts, 'Mechanisation'; Bridget O'Laughlin, 'Through a divided glass: dualism, class and the agrarian question in Mozambique', Journal of Peasant Studies 23, 4 (1996); Raikes, 'Food policy'.
114. The dualised nature of Frelimo's vision of rural transformation has been well covered : see Wuyts, 'Mechanisation'; Bridget O'Laughlin, 'Through a divided glass: dualism, class and the agrarian question in Mozambique', Journal of Peasant Studies 23, 4 (1996); Raikes, 'Food policy'.
115. Interview, two men, Sassalane, 22 July 1997.
116. In Nampula, there have been efforts to plant new trees. The same is happening in Morrébue, with the assistance of a Scandinavian NGO. Interview, Adelino Daniel Tadeu, Chefe da Repartição Tecnica, Secretariado do Caju, Pemba, 26 July 1997.
117. Interview, Adelino D. Tadeu; interview, district director of agriculture, Mecùfi, 25 July 1997.
118. See Harrison, 'Dynamics of rural crisis'.
119. Interview, man, Muinde, 18 July 1997.
120. Interview, Adelino D. Tadeu.
121. Harrison, 'Dynamics of rural crisis'; Massinga at al., Diagnostico Ràpido, p. 13.
122. Adolfo Y. Casai, 'A crise da produção familier e as algeias communais em Moçambique', Revista International de Estudo Africanos (Lisbon) 8/9 (1988).
123. Interview, Manuel Jorge Graça, director of the Centre for Rural Development in Mecúfi, Muária, 17 July 1997.
124. A point noted in various documents of the time: Bridget O'Laughlin, CUSO-SUCO in Cabo Delgado. Small Scale Urban Construction and Production of Building Materials (Maputo, 1990); Provincial Planning Service, Cidade de Pemba: Piano de Intervenções Prioritárias (Pemba, 1991) notes that the road to Nampula is dangerous except during the military escort, every two weeks (p. 43).
125. A point noted in various documents of the time: Bridget O'Laughlin, CUSO-SUCO in Cabo Delgado. Small Scale Urban Construction and Production of Building Materials (Maputo, 1990); Provincial Planning Service, Cidade de Pemba: Piano de Intervenções Prioritárias (Pemba, 1991) notes that the road to Nampula is dangerous except during the military escort, every two weeks (p. 43).
126. Interview, Manual Basilio Canas, Pemba, 1977.
127. 'Soldiers/rebels'. See Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rainforest: War Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone (Oxford, 1996). Mozambican sources here must remain anonymous.
128. Stockholm Group for Development Studies, Market Intervention and Pricing Policies for Agricultural Marketing in Mozambique (Stockholm, 1989), p. 1
129. In distinction to the geography of war in Zambezia. See Ken Wilson, The Socio-economic Impact of War and Flight in Posto Derre, Morrumbala District, Zambezia (Oxford, 1992).
130. Massinga, Os Recursos Naturais, p. 10
131. Adam and Cruz e Silva, Markets and Prices, p. 35. Further comment is required on the absence of marketable surplus: the drought and plagues in the late 1980s reduced productivity; no account is taken of unofficial trade; and no account is taken of intra district trade.
132. Villagers in Sassalane recalled how immediately after independence, the village structures asked people to listen out for people talking of colonialism. Those who were reported to the village president would be called to see him and declared as 'the enemy' or 'Xiconhoca' (interviews, Sassalane, 23 July 1997).
133. Interview, man and women, Zaulane, 11 May 1995.
134. Group interview, Muinde, 8 May 1995.
135. Interview, Muinde, 7 May 1995.
136. For example interview, man and woman, Zaulane, 12 May 1995.
137. Regouin, Relatório de uma Missão, pp. 45-6.
138. Appendix, L. Luis de Brito, 'Voting behaviour in Mozambique's first multiparty elections', in Brazão Mazula (ed.), Mozambique: Elections Democracy and Development (Maputo, 1996).
139. Although this varied from village to village: interviews in Muária revealed a stronger degree of support for Frelimo, whereas Muinde (which has a Renamo delegation) was more pro-Renamo.
140. Jocelyn Alexander, ' Political change in Manica Province, Mozambique : implications for the decentralisation of power', paper, Oxford University (1995), p. 6.
141. Vincent Tickner, 'Structural adjustment and pricing policy in Mozambique', Review of African Political Economy 53 (1992).
142. Tibana, 'Politics of Mozambique's famine', p. 24.
143. Tickner, 'Structural adjustment', p. 35. The reintegration of parallel and official markets has generated some controversy in the literature. Tickner argues that the inclusion of parallel market prices is likely to reduce falls in peasant terms of trade, whilst Hermele argues that parallel prices make terms of trade markedly worse. See Kenneth Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads: Economics and Politics in the Era of Structural Adjustment (Bergen, 1990), p. 19. See also Stockholm Group, Market Intervention, pp. 36 et seq.
144. Tickner, 'Structural adjustment', p. 35. The reintegration of parallel and official markets has generated some controversy in the literature. Tickner argues that the inclusion of parallel market prices is likely to reduce falls in peasant terms of trade, whilst Hermele argues that parallel prices make terms of trade markedly worse. See Kenneth Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads: Economics and Politics in the Era of Structural Adjustment (Bergen, 1990), p. 19. See also Stockholm Group, Market Intervention, pp. 36 et seq.
145. Tickner, 'Structural adjustment', p. 35. The reintegration of parallel and official markets has generated some controversy in the literature. Tickner argues that the inclusion of parallel market prices is likely to reduce falls in peasant terms of trade, whilst Hermele argues that parallel prices make terms of trade markedly worse. See Kenneth Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads: Economics and Politics in the Era of Structural Adjustment (Bergen, 1990), p. 19. See also Stockholm Group, Market Intervention, pp. 36 et seq.
146. If the issue of falling terms of trade had not emerged during the interview, my final question -'is there anything else important to you which you would like to tell me?'-often evoked responses about a custa da vida - the cost of living.
147. See, for example, Frelimo deputy Rui Nogar's speech, 'O Metical Libertou o Escudo', in Tempo (Maputo) 514, 17 Aug. 1980.
148. Interview, two men, Sambene, 14 July 1997.
149. Interview, man, Muinde, 17 July 1997.