Biomedical rationale for a wellness approach to obesity: An alternative to a focus on weight loss

Journal of Social Issues

Volumn 55, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 221-260

  Ernsberger, Paul ^a,b,c,d,e   Koletsky, Richard J ^a,b,f,g,h,i  

^a CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d WEILL CORNELL MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^e Dept Nutr Med Pharmacol N   (United States)

^f NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^g HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^h St Luke's Medical Center   (United States)

ⁱ Department of Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000156203     PISSN: 00224537     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/0022-4537.00114     Document Type: Article

References (128)

1. Abenhaim, L., Monde, Y., Brenot, F., Rich, S., Benichou, J., Kurz, X., Higenbottam, T., Oakley, C., Wouters, E., Aubier, M., Simonneau, G., & Begaud, B. (1996). Appetite-suppressant drugs and the risk of primary pulmonary hypertension. New England Journal of Medicine, 335, 609-616.
2. Akram, D.-S., Astrup, A. V., Atinmo, T., Boisson, J.-L., Bray, G. A., Carroll, K. K., Chunming, C., Chitson, P., Dietz, W. H., Hill, J. O., Jequier, E., Komodiki, C., Matsuzawa, Y., Mollentze, W. F., Moosa, K., Noor, M. I., Reddy, K. S., Seidell, J., Tanphaichitr, V., Uauy, R., & Zimmet, P. (1997). Obesity: Preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO consultation on obesity. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
3. Andersen, R. E., Wadden, T. A., Bartlett, S. J., Vogt, R. A., & Weinstock, R. S. (1995). Relation of weight loss to changes in serum lipids and lipoproteins in obese women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62, 350-357.
4. Andres, R. (1980). Effect of obesity on total mortality. International Journal of Obesity, 4(4), 381-386.
5. Andres, R., Elahi, D., Tobin, J. D., Muller, D. C., & Brant, L. (1985). Impact of age on weight goals. Annals of Internal Medicine, 103(6, part 2), 1030-1033.
6. Bale, G. S., & Entmacher, P. S. (1977). Estimated life expectancy of diabetics. Diabetes, 26(5), 434-438.
7. Barnett, A. H., Eff, C., Leslie, R. D., & Pyke, D. A. (1981). Diabetes in identical twins: A study of 200 pairs. Diabetologia, 20(2), 87-93.
8. Barrett-Connor, E. L. (1985). Obesity, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. Annals of Internal Medicine, 103(6, part 2), 1010-1019.
9. Barrett-Connor, E. L., & Khaw, K. T. (1985). Is hypertension more benign when associated with obesity? Circulation, 72(1), 53-60.
10. Beckmann, S. L., Os, I., Kjeldsen, S. E., Eide, I. K., Westheim, A. S., & Hjermann, I. (1995). Effect of dietary counselling on blood pressure and arterial plasma catecholamines in primary hypertension. American Journal of Hypertension, 8(1), 704-711.
11. Bennett, P. H. (1986). More about obesity and diabetes [Letter to the editor]. Diabetologia, 29(10), 753-754.
12. Blackburn, G. L., Wilson, G. T., Kanders, B. S., Stein, L. J., Lavin, P. T., Adler, I., & Brownell, K. D. (1989). Weight cycling: The experience of human dieters. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 49(Suppl.), 1105-1109.
13. Blair, S. N., Shaten, J., Brownell, K., Collins, G., & Lissner, L. (1993). Body weight change, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality in the multiple risk factor intervention trial. Annals of Internal Medicine, 119, 749-757.
14. Borhani, N. O., Hechter, H. H., & Breslow, L. (1963). Report of a 10-year follow-up study of the San Francisco longshoremen. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 16, 1251-1266.
15. Bray, G. A. (1996). Health hazards of obesity. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America, 25(4), 907-919.
16. Brenner, H., Arndt, V., Rothenbacher, D., Schuberth, S., Fraisse, E., & Fliedner, T. M. (1997). Body weight, pre-existing disease, and all-cause mortality in a cohort of male employees in the German construction industry. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 50(10), 1099-1106.
17. Brownell, K. D., & Rodin, J. (1994). Medical, metabolic, and psychological effects of weight cycling. Archives of Internal Medicine, 154, 1325-1330.
18. Buñag, R. D., & Barringer, D. L. (1988). Obese Zucker rats, though still normotensive, already have impaired chronotropic baroreflexes. Clinical and Experimental Hypertension, 10(Suppl. 1), 257-262.
19. Buñag, R. D., Krizsan, D., & Itoh, H. (1990). Diminished cardiovascular responsiveness to vagal stimulation in obese rats. American Journal of Physiology, 259, R842-R848.
20. Burton, B. T., Foster, W. R., Hirsch, J., & Van Itallie, T. B. (1985). Health implications of obesity: An NIH Consensus Development Conference. International Journal of Obesity, 9, 155-170.
21. Charles, M. A., Pettitt, D. J., Saad, M. F., Nelson, R. G., Bennett, P. H., & Knowler, W. C. (1993). Development of impaired glucose tolerance with or without weight gain. Diabetes Care, 16, 593-596.
22. Chaturvedi, N., Fuller, J. H., & the WHO Multinational Study Group. (1995). Mortality risk by body weight and weight change in people with NIDDM: The WHO Multinational Study of Vascular Disease in Diabetes. Diabetes Care, 18, 766-774.
23. Ciliska, D., Kelly, C., Petrov, N., & Chalmers, J. (1995). A review of weight loss interventions for obese people with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Canadian Journal of Diabetes Care, 19, 10-15.
24. Collins, V. R., Dowse, G. K., Cabealawa, S., Ram, P., & Zimmet, P. Z. (1998). High mortality from cardiovascular disease and analysis of risk factors in Indian and melanisian Fijians. International Journal of Epidemiology, 25, 59-69.
25. Contreras, R. J., & King, S. (1989). High fat/sucrose feeding attenuates the hypertension of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Physiology and Behavior, 46, 285-291.
26. Crews, D. E. (1989). Multivariate prediction of total and cardiovascular mortality in an obese Polynesian population. American Journal of Public Health, 79(8), 982-986.
27. Dengel, J. L., Katzel, L. I., & Goldberg, A. P. (1995). Effect of an American Heart Association diet, with or without weight loss, on lipids in obese middle-aged and older men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62, 715-721.
28. Dyer, A. R., Stamler, J., Berkson, D. M., & Lindberg, H. A. (1975). Relationship of relative weight and body mass index to 14-year mortality in the Chicago People's Gas Company study. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 28(2), 109-123.
29. Edelstein, S. L., Knowler, W. C., Bain, R. P., Andres, R., Barrett-Connor, E. L., Dowse, G. K., Haffner, S. M., Pettitt, D. J., Sorkin, J. D., Muller, D. C., Collins, V. R., & Hamman, R. F. (1997). Predictors of progression from impaired glucose tolerance to NIDDM: An analysis of six prospective studies. Diabetes, 46(4), 701-710.
30. Ernsberger, P. (1987). NIH Consensus Conference on Obesity: By whom and for what? Journal of Nutrition, 117, 1164-1165.
31. Ernsberger, P., & Haskew, P. (1987). Health implications of obesity: An alternative view. Journal of Obesity and Weight Regulation, 6, 55-137.
32. Ernsberger, P., & Koletsky, R. J. (1993). Weight cycling and mortality: Support from animal studies. Journal of the American Medical Association, 269, 1116.
33. Ernsberger, P., & Koletsky, R. J. (1995). Weight cycling. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 998-999.
34. Ernsberger, P., Koletsky, R. J., Baskin, J. Z., & Collins, L. A. (1996). Consequences of weight cycling in obese spontaneously hypertensive rats. American Journal of Physiology: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 270, R864-R872.
35. Ernsberger, P., Koletsky, R. J., Baskin, J. Z., & Foley, M. (1994). Refeeding hypertension in obese spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertension, 24, 699-705.
36. Ernsberger, P., Koletsky, R. J., Collins, L. A., & Bedol, D. (1996). Sympathetic nervous system in salt-sensitive and obese hypertension: Amelioration of multiple abnormalities by a central sympatholytic agent. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapeutics, 10(Suppl. 1), 275-282.
37. Ernsberger, P., & Nelson, D. O. (1988a). Effects of fasting and refeeding on blood pressure are determined by nutritional state, not by body weight change. American Journal of Hypertension, 1, 153S-157S.
38. Ernsberger, P., & Nelson, D. O. (1988b). Refeeding hypertension in dietary obesity. American Journal of Physiology, 254, R47-R55.
39. Everhart, J. E. (1993). Contributions of obesity and weight loss to gallstone disease. Annals of Internal Medicine, 119, 1029-1035.
40. Felson, D. T. (1996). Weight and osteoarthritis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 63(Suppl.), 430S-432S.
41. Feskens, E. J., Virtanen, S. M., Rasanen, L., Tuomilehto, J., Stengard, J., Pekkanen, J., Nissinen, A., & Kromhout, D. (1995). Dietary factors determining diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance: A 20-year follow-up of the Finnish and Dutch cohorts of the Seven Countries Study. Diabetes Care, 18(8), 1104-1112.
42. Filipovsky, J., Ducimetière, P., Darné, B., & Richard, J. L. (1993). Abdominal body mass distribution and elevated blood pressure are associated with increased risk of death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer in middle-aged men: The results of a 15- to 20-year follow-up in the Paris prospective study I. International Journal of Obesity, 17, 197-203.
43. Fitzgerald, F. T. (1981). The problem of obesity. Annual Review of Medicine, 32, 221-231.
44. Flegal, K. M., Carroll, M. D., Kuczmarski, R. J., & Johnson, C. L. (1998). Overweight and obesity in the United States: Prevalence and trends, 1960-1994. International Journal of Obesity, 22(1), 39-47.
45. Galanos, A. N., Pieper, C. F., Kussin, P. S., Winchell, M. T., Fulkerson, W. J., Harrell, F. E. Jr., Teno, J. M., Layde, P., Connors, A. F. Jr., Phillips, R. S., & Wenger, N. S. (1997). Relationship of body mass index to subsequent mortality among seriously ill hospitalized patients. Critical Care Medicine, 25(12), 1962-1968.
46. Garn, S. M., Bailey, S. M., & Block, W. D. (1979). Relationships between fatness and lipid level in adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 32(4), 733-735.
47. Garn, S. M., Hawthorne, V. M., Pilkington, J. J., & Pesick, S. D. (1983). Fatness and mortality in the West of Scotland. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 38(2), 313-319.
48. Garrison, R. J., Feinleib, M., Castelli, W. P., & McNamara, P. M. (1983). Cigarette smoking as a confounder of the relationship between relative weight and long-term mortality: The Framingham Heart Study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 249(16), 2199-2203.
49. Gortmaker, S. L., Must, A., Perrin, J. M., Sobol, A. M., & Dietz, W. H. (1993). Social and economic consequences of overweight in adolescence and young adulthood. New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 1008-1012.
50. Groop, L. C., & Tuomi, T. (1997). Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus - A collision between thrifty genes and an affluent society. Annals of Medicine, 29(1), 37-53.
51. Halverson, J. D., Scheff, R. J., Gentry, K., & Alpers, D. H. (1980). Jejunoileal bypass: Late metabolic sequelae and weight gain. American Journal of Surgery, 140(3), 347-350.
52. Hamm, P., Shekelle, R. B., & Stamler, J. (1989). Large fluctuations in body weight during young adulthood and twenty-five-year risk of coronary death in men. American Journal of Epidemiology, 129, 312-318.
53. Hanson, R. L., McCance, D. R., Jacobsson, L. T. H., Narayan, K. M. V., Nelson, R. G., Pettitt, D. J., Bennett, P. H., & Knowler, W. C. (1995). The U-shaped association between body mass index and mortality: Relationship with weight gain in a Native American population. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 48, 903-916.
54. Harrison, G. G. (1985). Height-weight tables. Annals of Internal Medicine, 103(6, part 2), 989-994.
55. Higgins, M., Kannel, W., Garrison, R., Pinsky, J., & Stokes, J. (1988). Hazards of obesity - The Framingham experience. Acta Medica Scandinavica, 723(Suppl.), 23-36.
56. Hill, A. B. (1966). Principles of Medical Statistics (8th ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
57. Hirdes, J. P., & Forbes, W. F. (1992). The importance of social relationships, socioeconomic status and health practices with respect to mortality among healthy Ontario males. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 45, 175-182.
58. Hirsch, J. (1987). Reply to letter of Dr. Ernsberger. Journal of Nutrition, 117, 1166.
59. Hodge, A. M., Dowse, G. K., Collins, V. R., & Zimmet, P. Z. (1996). Mortality in Micronesian Nauruans and Melanesian and Indian Fijians is not associated with obesity. American Journal of Epidemiology, 143, 442-455.
60. Incidence and prediction of coronary heart disease in two Italian rural population samples followed-up for 20 years. (1982). Acta Cardiologia, 37(2), 129-145.
61. Iverius, P. H., & Brunzell, J. D. (1985). Obesity and common genetic metabolic disorders. Annals of Internal Medicine, 103(6, part 2), 1050-1051.
62. Jarrett, R. J. (1986). Is there an ideal body weight? British Medical Journal, 295(6545), 493-495.
63. Jarrett, R. J., Shipley, M. J., & Rose, G. (1982). Weight and mortality in the Whitehall Study. British Medical Journal, 285(6341), 535-537.
64. Jeffery, R. W., French, S. A., Forster, J. L., & Spry, V. M. (1991). Socioeconomic status differences in health behaviors related to obesity: The Healthy Worker Project. International Journal of Obesity, 15, 689-696.
65. Johnston, F. E. (1985). Health implications of childhood obesity. Annals of Internal Medicine, 103(6, part 2), 1068-1072.
66. Jung, R. T., Shetty, P. S., & James, W. P. (1980). Nutritional effects on thyroid and catecholamine metabolism. Clinical Science, 58(3), 183-191.
67. Keller, H. H. (1995). Weight gain impacts morbidity and mortality in institutionalized older persons. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 43, 165-169.
68. Keys, A. (1981). Overweight, obesity, coronary heart disease, and mortality: The W. O. Atwater Memorial Lecture, 1980. Progress in Clinical and Biological Research, 67, 31-46.
69. Keys, A. (1989). Longevity of man: Relative weight and fatness in middle age. Annals of Medicine, 21, 163-168.
70. Kluthe, R., & Schubert, A. (1985). Obesity in Europe. Annals of Internal Medicine, 103(6, part 2), 1037-1042.
71. Koletsky, R. J., Boccia, J., & Ernsberger, P. (1995). Acceleration of renal disease in obese SHR by exacerbation of hypertension. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 22, S254-S256
72. Kuczmarski, R. J., Flegal, K. M., Campbell, S. M., & Johnson, C. L. (1994). Increasing prevalence of overweight among US adults: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1960 to 1991. Journal of the American Medical Association, 272, 205-211.
73. Landsberg, L., & Young, J. B. (1978). Fasting, feeding and regulation of the sympathetic nervous system. New England Journal of Medicine, 298, 1295-1301.
74. Lantz, P. M., House, J. S., Lepkowski, J. M., Williams, D. R., Mero, R. P., & Chen, J. (1998). Socioeconomic factors, health behaviors, and mortality: Results from a nationally representative prospective study of US adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 279(21), 1703-1708.
75. Lapidus, L., Bengtsson, C., Lissner, L., & Smith, U. (1992). Family history of diabetes in relation to different types of obesity and change of obesity during 12-yr period: Results from prospective population study of women in Göteborg, Sweden. Diabetes Care, 15, 1455-1458.
76. Lee, I. M., & Manson, J. E. (1998). Body weight and mortality: What is the shape of the curve? Epidemiology, 9(3), 227-228.
77. Lee, I. M., Manson, J. E., Hennekens, C. H., & Paffenbarger, R. S. (1993). Body weight and mortality: A 27-year follow-up of middle-aged men. Journal of the American Medical Association, 270(23), 2823-2828.
78. Lew, E. A., End, J. A., & Wilber, J. A. (1979), The new build and blood pressure study. Transactions of the Association of Life Insurance Medical Directors of America, 62, 154-174.
79. Lissner, L., Andres, R., Muller, D. C., & Shimokata, H. (1990). Body weight variability in men: Metabolic rate, health and longevity. International Journal of Obesity, 14, 373-383.
80. Lissner, L., Odell, P. M., D'Agostino, R. B., Stokes, J. III, Kreger, B. E., Belanger, A. J., & Brownell, K. D. (1991). Variability of body weight and health outcomes in the Framingham population. New England Journal of Medicine, 324, 1839-1844.
81. Manson, J. E., Willett, W. C., Stampfer, M. J., Colditz, G. A., Hunter, D. J., Hankinson, S. E., Hennekens, C. H., & Speizer, F. E. (1995). Body weight and mortality among women. New England Journal of Medicine, 333, 677-685.
82. Modan, M., Karasik, A., Halkin, H., Fuchs, Z., Lusky, A., Shitrit, A., & Modan, B. (1986). Effect of past and concurrent body mass index on prevalence of glucose intolerance and type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes and on insulin response: The Israel study of glucose intolerance, obesity and hypertension. Diabetologia, 29(2), 82-89.
83. Morris, J. K., Cook, D. G., & Shaper, A. G. (1992). Non-employment and changes in smoking, drinking, and body weight. British Medical Journal, 304, 536-541.
84. National Institutes of Health National Task Force on the Prevention and Treatment of Obesity. (1993). Very low-calorie diets. Journal of the American Medical Association, 270(8), 967-974.
85. National Institutes of Health National Task Force on the Prevention and Treatment of Obesity. (1994). Weight cycling. Journal of the American Medical Association, 272(15), 1196-1202.
86. National Institutes of Health National Task Force on the Prevention and Treatment of Obesity. (1996). Long-term pharmacotherapy in the management of obesity. Journal of the American Medical Association, 276(23), 1907-1915.
87. Oud, L., & Haupt, M. T. (1997). Body mass index and the hospitalized patient: A "mean" outcome for the "lean." Critical Care Medicine, 25(12), 1938-1940.
88. Pfohl, M., Luft, D., Blomberg, I., & Schmülling, R.-M. (1994). Long-term changes of body weight and cardiovascular risk factors after weight reduction with group therapy and dexfenfluramine. International Journal of Obesity, 18, 391-395.
89. Pi-Sunyer, F. X. (1993). Medical hazards of obesity. Annals of Internal Medicine, 119, 655-660.
90. Potter, J. F., Schafer, D. F., & Bohi, R. L. (1988). In-hospital mortality as a function of body mass index: An age-dependent variable. Journal of Gerontology, 45(3), 59-63.
91. Reife, C. M. (1995). Involuntary weight loss. Medical Clinics of North America, 79, 299-313.
92. Rissanen, A., Heliovaara, M., Knekt, P., Aromaa, A., Reunanen, A., & Maatela, J. (1989). Weight and mortality in Finnish men. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 42(8), 781-789.
93. Rissanen, A., Knekt, P., Heliovaara, M., Aromaa, A., Reunanen, A., & Maatela, J. (1991). Weight and mortality in Finnish women. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 44(8), 787-795.
94. Rocchini, A. P., Moorehead, C., Wentz, E., & Deremer, S. (1987). Obesity-induced hypertension in the dog. Hypertension, 9, III64-III68.
95. Rodin, J. (1993). Cultural and psychosocial determinants of weight concerns. Annals of Internal Medicine, 119, 643-645.
96. Rodin, J., Radke-Sharpe, N., Rebuffë-Scrive, M., & Greenwood, M. R. (1990). Weight cycling and fat distribution. International Journal of Obesity, 14, 303-310.
97. Rosengren, A., Welin, L., Tsipogianni, A., & Wilhelmsen, L. (1989). Impact of cardiovascular risk factors on coronary heart disease and mortality among middle aged diabetic men: A general population study. British Medical Journal, 299(6708), 1127-1131.
98. Ross, C., Langer, R. D., & Barrett-Connor, E. (1997). Given diabetes, is fat better than thin? Diabetes Care, 20(4), 650-652.
99. Salmond, C. E., Beaglehole, R., & Prior, I. A. (1985). Are low cholesterol values associated with excess mortality? British Medical Journal, 290(6466), 422-424.
100. Schols, A. M., Slangen, J., Volovics, L., & Wouters, E. F. (1998). Weight loss is a reversible factor in the prognosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 157(6, part 1), 1791-1797.
101. Seccareccia, F., Lanti, M., Menotti, A., & Scanga, M. (1998). Role of body mass index in the prediction of all cause mortality in over 62,000 men and women. The Italian RIFLE Pooling Project: Risk Factor and Life Expectancy. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 52(1), 20-26.
102. Sigal, R. J., El-Hashimy, M., Martin, B. C., Soeldner, J. S., Krolewski, A. S., & Warram, J. H. (1997). Acute postchallenge hyperinsulinemia predicts weight gain: A prospective study. Diabetes, 46(6), 1025-1029.
103. Sims, E. A. (1982). Mechanisms of hypertension in the overweight. Hypertension, 4, III43-III49.
104. Sorensen, T. I. A. (1995). Socioeconomic aspects of obesity : Causes or effects. International Journal of Obesity, 19(Suppl. 6), S6-S8.
105. Sorlie, P., Gordon, T., & Kannel, W. B. (1980). Body build and mortality: The Framingham study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 243(18), 1828-1831.
106. Sprafka, J. M., Burke, G. L., Folsom, A. R., Luepker, R. V., & Blackburn, H. (1990). Continued decline in cardiovascular disease risk factors: Results of the Minnesota Heart Survey, 1980-1982 and 1985-1987. American Journal of Epidemiology, 132(3), 489-500.
107. Stallones, R. A. (1985). Epidemiologic studies of obesity. Annals of Internal Medicine, 103(6, part 2), 1003-1005.
108. Stevens, J., Cai, J. W., Pamuk, E. R., Williamson, D. F., Thun, M. J., & Wood, J. L. (1998). The effect of age on the association between body-mass index and mortality. New England Journal of Medicine, 338(1), 1-7.
109. Stevens, J., Keil, J. E., Rust, P. F., Tyroler, H. A., Davis, C. E., & Gazes, P. C. (1992). Body mass index and body girths as predictors of mortality in Black and White women. Archives of Internal Medicine, 152, 1257-1262.
110. Tayback, M., Kumanyika, S., & Chee, E. (1990). Body weight as a risk factor in the elderly. Archives of Internal Medicine, 150(5), 1065-1072.
111. Tong, R. (1991). The epistemology and ethics of consensus: Uses and misuses of "ethical" expertise. Journal of Medical Philosophy, 16(4), 409-426.
112. Troiano, R. P., Frongillo, E. A. Jr., Sobal, J., & Levitsky, D. A. (1996). The relationship between body weight and mortality: A quantitative analysis of combined information from existing studies. International Journal of Obesity, 20, 63-75.
113. Tuomilehto, J., Salonen, J. T., Marti, B., Jalkanen, L., Puska, P., Nissinen, A., & Wolf, E. (1987). Body weight and risk of myocardial infarction and death in the adult population of eastern Finland. British Medical Journal, 295(6599), 623-627.
114. Vandenbroucke, J. P., Mauritz, B. J., de Bruin, A., Verheesen, J. H., van der Heide-Wessel, C., & van der Heide, R. M. (1984). Weight, smoking, and mortality. Journal of the American Medical Association, 252(20), 2859-2860.
115. Van Itallie, T. B. (1979). Obesity: Adverse effects on health and longevity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 32(12 Suppl.), 2723-2733.
116. Van Itallie, T. B. (1985). Health implications of overweight and obesity in the United States. Annals of Internal Medicine, 103(6, part 2), 983-988.
117. Van Itallie, T. B., & Burton, B. T. (1979). National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference on Surgical Treatment of Morbid Obesity. Annals of Surgery, 189(4), 455-457.
118. Vezina, W. C., Grace, D. M., Hutton, L. C., Alfieri, M. H., Colby, P. R., Downey, D. B., Vanderwerf, R. J., White, N. F., & Ward, R. P. (1998). Similarity in gallstone formation from 900 kcal/day diets containing 16 g vs 30 g of daily fat: Evidence that fat restriction is not the main culprit of cholelithiasis during rapid weight reduction. Digestive Disease Science, 43(3), 554-561.
119. Waaler, H. T. (1984). Height, weight and mortality. The Norwegian experience. Acta Medica Scandinavica, 679(Suppl.), 1-56.
120. Wallace, J. I., Schwartz, R. S., LaCroix, A. Z., Uhlmann, R. F., & Pearlman, R. A. (1995). Involuntary weight loss in older outpatients: Incidence and clinical significance. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 43, 329-337.
121. Wamala, S. P., Wolk, A., & Orth-Gomér, K. (1997). Determinants of obesity in relation to socioeconomic status among middle-aged Swedish women. Preventive Medicine, 26(5, part 1), 734-744.
122. Weinsier, R. L., & Krumdieck, C. L. (1981). Death resulting from overzealous total parenteral nutrition: The refeeding syndrome revisited. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 34, 393-399.
123. Whelton, P. K., Appel, L. J., Espeland, M. A., Applegate, W. B., Ettinger, W. H., Kostis, J. B., Kumanyika, S., Lacy, C. R., Johnson, K. C., Folmar, S., & Cutler, J. A. (1998). Sodium reduction and weight loss in the treatment of hypertension in older persons: A randomized controlled trial of nonpharmacologic interventions in the elderly (TONE). Journal of the American Medical Association, 279(11), 839-846.
124. Wienpahl, J., Ragland, D. R., & Sidney, S. (1990). Body mass index and 15-year mortality in a cohort of Black men and women. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 43(9), 949-960.
125. Williams, S. R., Jones, E., Bell, W., Davies, B., & Bourne, M. W. (1997). Body habitus and coronary heart disease in men: A review with reference to methods of body habitus assessment. European Heart Journal, 18(3), 376-393.
126. Wolf, A. M., Beisiegel, U., Kortner, B., & Kuhlmann, H. W. (1998). Does gastric restriction surgery reduce the risks of metabolic diseases? Obesity Surgery, 8(1), 9-13.
127. Wolf, R. N., & Grundy, S. M. (1983). Influence of weight reduction on plasma lipoproteins in obese patients. Arteriosclerosis, 3(2), 160-169.
128. Wood, F. C., & Bierman, E. L. (1986). Is diet the cornerstone in management of diabetes? New England Journal of Medicine, 315(19), 1224-1227.