Replication versus realism: The need for ecosystem-scale experiments

Ecosystems

Volumn 1, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 323-334

  Schindler, David W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Ecosystem experiments; Experimental Lakes Area; Mesocosms; Spatial and temporal scales

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000011694     PISSN: 14329840     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s100219900026     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Ahlgren I. 1977. Role of sediments in the process of recovery of a eutrophicated lake. In: Golterman HL, editor. Interactions between sediments and fresh water: proceedings of an international symposium in Amsterdam. The Hague: W Junk. p 372-7.
2. Armstrong FAJ, Schindler DW. 1971. A preliminary chemical characterization of waters in the Experimental Lakes Area (ELA), northwestern Ontario. J Fish Res Board Can 28:171-87.
3. Baker LA, Brezonik PL, Edgerton ES. 1986. Sources and sinks of ions in a soft water, acidic lake in Florida. Water Resour Res 22:715-22.
4. Beamish RJ, Blouw LM, McFarlane GA. 1976. A fish and chemical study of 109 lakes in the Experimental Lakes Area, northwestern Ontario, with appended reports on lake whitefish aging errors and the northwestern Ontario baitfish industry. Fish Mar Serv Tech Report 607.
5. Benndorf J. 1990. Conditions for effective biomanipulation: conclusions derived from whole-lake experiments in Europe. Hydrobiologia 200/201:187-203.
6. Bilyj B, Davies IJ. 1989. Descriptions and ecological notes on seven new species of Cladotanytarsus (Chironomidae: Diptera) collected from an experimentally acidified lake. Can J Zool 67:948-62.
7. Blumenshine SC, Vadeboncoeur Y, Lodge DM, Cottingham KL, Knight SE. 1997. Benthic-pelagic links: responses of benthos to water-column nutrient enrichment. J North Am Benthol Soc 16:466-79.
8. Bodaly RA, Rudd JWM, Fudge RJP, Kelly CA. 1993. Mercury concentrations in fish related to size of remote Canadian Shield lakes. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 50:980-7.
9. Bower PM, Kelly CA, Fee EJ, Shearer JA, DeClercq DR, Schindler DW 1987. Simultaneous measurement of primary production by whole-lake and bottle radiocarbon additions. Limnol Oceanogr 32:299-312.
10. Brunskill GJ, Schindler DW. 1971. Geography and bathymetry of selected lake basins, Experimental Lakes Area, northwestern Ontario. J Fish Res Board Can 28:139-55.
11. Carpenter SR. 1996. Microcosm experiments have limited relevance for community and ecosystem ecology. Ecology 77: 677-80.
12. Carpenter SR. The need for large-scale experiments to assess and predict the response of ecosystems to perturbation. In: Pace ML, Graffman PM, editors. Successes, limitations, and frontiers in ecosystem science. New York: Springer-Verlag. Forthcoming.
13. Carpenter SR, Cole JJ, Essington TE, Hodgson JR, Houser JN, Kitchell JF, Pace M. 1998. Evaluating alternative explanations in ecosystem experiments. Ecosystems 1(4) [this issue].
14. Carpenter SR, Kitchell JM. 1988. Consumer control of lake productivity. Bioscience 38:764-9.
15. Carpenter SR, Frost TM, Kitchall JF, Kratz TK, Schindler DW, Shearer J, Sprules WG, Vanni MJ, Zimmerman AP. 1991. Patterns of primary production and herbivory in 25 North American lake ecosystems. In: Cole J, Findlay S, Lovett G, editors. Comparative analysis of ecosystems: patterns, mechanisms and theories. New York: Springer-Verlag, p 67-91.
16. Dillon PJ, Rigler FH. 1974. A test of a simple nutrient budget model predicting the phosphorus concentration in lake water. J Fish Res Board Can 31:1771-8.
17. Edmondson WT. 1991. The uses of ecology. Lake Washington and beyond. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
18. Emmett BA, Boxman D, Brademeier M, Gundersen P, Kjønaas OJ, Moldan F, Schleppi P, Tietema A, Wright RF. 1998. Predicting the effects of atmospheric nitrogen deposition in conifer stands: Evidence from the NITREX ecosystem-scale experiments. Ecosystems 1:352-60.
19. Englund G. 1997. Importance of spatial scale and prey movements in predator caging experiments. Ecology 78:2316-25.
20. Fee EJ, Hecky RE. 1992. Introduction to the Northwest Ontario Lake Size Series (NOLSS). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 49:2434-44.
21. Fee EJ, Hecky RE, Kasian SEM, Cruikshank DR. 1996. Effects of lake size, water clarity, and climatic variability on mixing depths in Canadian Shield lakes. Limnol Oceanogr 41:912-20.
22. Fee EJ, Hecky RE, Regehr GW, Hendzel LL, Wilkinson P. 1994. Effects of lake size on nutrient availability in the mixed layer during summer stratification. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 51: 2756-68.
23. Findlay DL, Kasian SEM. 1987. Phytoplankton community responses to nutrient addition in Lake 226, Experimental Lakes Area, northwestern Ontario. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 44:35-46.
24. Findlay DL, Kasian SEM, Hendzel LL, Regehr GW, Schindler EU, Shearer JA. 1994. Biomanipulation of Lake 221 in the Experimental Lakes Area (ELA): effects on phytoplankton and nutrients. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 51:2794-807.
25. Frost TM, Carpenter SR, Ives AR, Kratz TK. 1995. Species compensation and complementarity in ecosystem function. In: Jones C, Lawton JH, editors. Linking species and ecosystems. New York: Chapman and Hall, p 224-39.
26. Frost TM, DeAngelis DL, Allen TFH, Bartell SM, Hall DJ. 1988. Scale in the design and interpretation of aquatic community research. In: Carpenter SR, editor. Complex interactions in lake communities. New York: Springer-Verlag, p 229-60.
27. Gachter R. 1979. MELIMEX, an experimental heavy metal pollution study. Schweiz Z Hydrol 41:165-314.
28. Goldman CR. 1962. A method of studying nutrient limiting factors in situ in water columns isolated by polyethylene film. Limnol Oceanogr 7:99-101.
29. Goldman CR. 1972. The role of minor nutrients in limiting the productivity of aquatic ecosystems. In: Likens GE, editor. Nutrients and eutrophication: the limiting-nutrient controversy. Limnol Oceanogr Spec Symp 1:21-33.
30. Guildford SJ, Hendzel LL, Kling HJ, Fee EJ, Robinson GGC, Hecky RE, Kasian SEM. 1994. Effects of lake size on phytoplankton nutrient status. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 51:2769-83.
31. Hamilton AL. 1971. Zoobenthos of fifteen lakes in the Experimental Lakes Area, northwestern Ontario. J Fish Res Board Can 28:257-63.
32. Hendzel LL, Hecky RE, Findlay DL. 1994. Recent changes of nitrogen fixation in Lake 227 in response to reduction of the N:P loading ratio. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 51:2247-53.
33. Hesslein RH, Broecker WS, Quay PD, Schindler DW 1980. Whole-lake radiocarbon experiment in an oligotrophic lake at the Experimental Lakes Area, northwestern Ontario. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 37:454-63.
34. Hesslein RH, Quay P. 1973. Vertical eddy diffusion studies in the thermocline of a small stratified lake. J Fish Res Board Can 30:1491-500.
35. Holoka MH, Hunt RV. 1996. Automated addition of toxicant to a whole lake. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 53:1871-5.
36. Johnson WE, Vallentyne JR. 1971. Rationale, background, and development of experimental lake studies in northwestern Ontario. J Fish Res Board Can 28:123-8.
37. Kelly CA, Rudd JWM, Hesslein RH, Schindler DW, Dillon PJ, Driscoll C, Gherini SA, Hecky RE. 1987. Prediction of biological and neutralization in acid-sensitive lakes. Biogeochemistry 3:129-40.
38. Kerr PC, Paris DF, Brockway DL. 1970. The interrelationship of carbon and phosphorus in regulating heterotrophic and autotrophic populations in aquatic ecosystems. Water Pollution Research Series 16050 FGS 07/70. Washington (DC): US Government Printing Office.
39. Kling HJ, Holmgren SK. 1972. Species composition and seasonal distribution of phytoplankton in the Experimental Lakes Area, northwestern Ontario. Fish Mar Serv Tech Rep 337.
40. Kotak BG, Zurawell RW, Prepas EE, Holmes CFB. 1996. Microcystin-LR concentration in aquatic food web compartments from lakes of varying trophic status. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 53: 1974-85.
41. Kuenzel LE. 1970. Bacteria-algae symbiosis: a cause of algal blooms. In: Geist WG Jr, Green PE, editors. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Hydrobiology: bioresources of shallow water environments. Urbana (IL): American Water Resources Association, p 321-4.
42. Lange W. 1970. Effects of added carbon compounds or phosphate on algal growth at low nutrient concentrations. J Phycol 6:230-4.
43. Legge RF, Dingeldein D. 1970. We hung phosphates without a fair trail. Can Res Dev 3(March/April 1970):19-42. [This series of articles was followed by extensive rebuttal and comment in three subsequent issues of the magazine, May/June 1970, July/August 1970, and March/April 1971. The last contains "The controversy bubbles on," Legge's review of the National Academy of Science's symposium on eutrophication.]
44. Levine SN, Schindler DW 1989. Phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon dynamics of Lake 303 during recovery from eutrophication. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 46:2-10.
45. Levine SN, Schindler DW. 1992. Modification of the N:P ratio in lakes through in-situ processes. Limnol Oceanogr 37:917-35.
46. Levine SN, Schindler DW. Experiments in mesocosms to assess the nitrogen:phosphorus supply ratio on phytoplankton species composition. Can J Fish Aquat Sci. Forthcoming.
47. Likens GE. 1992. The ecosystem approach: its use and abuse. Oldendorf/Luhe (Germany): Ecology Institute.
48. Lodge DM, Blumenshine SC, Vadeboncoeur Y. Insights and application of large scale, long-term ecological observations and experiments. In: Resetarits WR Jr, Bernardo J, editors. Experimental ecology: issues and perspectives. London: Oxford University Press. Forthcoming.
49. Lund JWG. 1972. Preliminary observations on the use of large experimental tubes in lakes. Verh Int Verein Theor Angew Limnol 18:71-7.
50. Marra J. 1978. Phytoplankton photosynthetic response to vertical movement in a mixed layer. Mar Biol 46:203-8.
51. Marshall JS, Mellinger DL. 1980. Dynamics of cadmium-stressed plankton communities. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 38:403-14.
52. Mills KH, Chalanchuk SM. 1987. Population dynamics of lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) during and after the fertilization of Lake 226, the Experimental Lakes Area. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 44 Suppl 1:55-63.
53. Mills KH, Chalanchuk SM, Morh LC, Davies IJ. 1987. Responses of fish populations in Lake 223 to 8 years of experimental acidification. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 44 Suppl 1:114-25.
54. Milot-Roy V, Vincent WF. 1994. UV radiation effects on photosynthesis: the importance of near-surface thermoclines in a subarctic lake. Arch Hydrol Beih Ergeb Limnol 43:171-84.
55. Nixon SW, Pilson MEQ, Oviatt CA, Donaghay P, Sullivan B, Seitzinger S, Rudnick D, Frithsen J. 1984. Quantifying the relationship between nitrogen input and the productivity of marine ecosystems. In: Takahashi M, Nakata K, Parsons TR, editors. Proceedings of Advanced Marine Technology Conference, vol 5, Tokyo, Japan, p 57-83.
56. O'Brien WJ, Hershey AE, Hobbie J, Hullar MA, Kipphut GW, Miller MC, Moller B, Vestal JR. 1992. Control mechanisms of Arctic lake ecosystems: a limnocorral experiment. Hydrobiologia 240:143-88.
57. Oviatt CA. 1994. Biological considerations in marine enclosure experiments: challenges and revelations. Oceanography 7: 45-51.
58. Pace ML. Getting it right and wrong: extrapolations across experimental scales. In: Workshop on scaling relations in experimental ecology, St. Michael (MD), 7-10 December 1997. Forthcoming
59. Patalas K. 1971. Crustacean plankton communities in forty-five lakes in the Experimental Lakes Area, northwestern Ontario. J Fish Res Board Can 28:231-44.
60. Paul AJ, Leavitt PR, Schindler DW, Hardie AK. 1995. Direct and indirect effect of predation by a calanoid copepod (subgenus: Hesperodiaptomus), and of nutrients in a fishless alpine lake. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 52:2628-38.
61. Paul AJ, Schindler DW 1994. Regulation of rotifers by predatory calanoid copepods (subgenus: Hesperodiaptomus) in lakes of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 51:2520-8.
62. Peterson BJ, Bahr M, Kling GW 1997. A tracer investigation of nitrogen cycling in a pristine tundra river. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 54:2215-27.
63. Pimentel D, Stachow U, Takacs DA, Brubaker HW, Dumas AR, Meaney JJ, O'Neil JAS, Onsi DE, Corzilius DB. 1992. Conserving biological diversity in agricultural/forestry systems. Bioscience 42:354-62.
64. Provasoli L. 1969. Algal nutrition and eutrophication. In: Eutrophication: causes, consequences, correctives. Washington (DC): National Academy of Sciences, p 574-93.
65. Quay PD. 1977. An experimental study of turbulent diffusion in lakes [PhD thesis]. New York: Faculty of Pure Science, Columbia University.
66. Quay PD, Broecker WS, Hesslein RH, Schindler DW 1980. Vertical diffusion rates determined by tritium tracer experiments in the thermocline and hypolimnion of two lakes. Limnol Oceanogr 25:201-8.
67. Ramlal PS, Kelly CA, Rudd JWM, Furutani A. 1993. Sites of methyl mercury production in remote Canadian Shield Lakes. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 50:972-9.
68. Riggs D. 1963. The mathematical approach to physiological problems: a critical primer. Cambridge: MIT Press.
69. Rudd JWM, Kelly CA, Schindler DW, Turner MA. 1988. Disruption of the nitrogen cycle in acidified lakes. Science (Washington DC) 240:1515-7.
70. Santschi PH. 1985. The MERL mesocosm approach for studying sediment-water interactions and ecotoxicology. Environ Sci Lett 6:335-50.
71. Santschi PH, Nyfeller UP, Anderson RF, Schiff SL, O'Hara P, Hesslein RH. 1986. Response of radioactive trace metals to acid-base titrations in controlled experimental ecosystems: comparison of results from enclosure and whole-lake radiotracer additions. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 43:60-77.
72. Schindler DE, Carpenter SR, Cottingham KL, He X, Hodgson JR, Kitchell JF, Soranno PA. 1996. Food web structure and littoral zone coupling to pelagic trophic cascades. In: Polis GA, Winemiller K, editors. Food webs: integration of patterns and dynamics. New York: Chapman and Hall, p 96-105.
73. Schindler DW 1971. Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and the eutrophication of freshwater lakes. J Phycol 7:321-9.
74. Schindler DW 1977. Evolution of phosphorus limitation in lakes: natural mechanisms compensate for deficiencies of nitrogen and carbon in eutrophied lakes. Science (Washington DC) 195:260-2.
75. Schindler DW 1988. Experimental studies of chemical stressors on whole lake ecosystems: Baldi Lecture. Verh Int Verein Limnol 23:11-41.
76. Schindler DW. 1990. Experimental perturbations of whole lakes as tests of hypotheses concerning ecosystem structure and function: proceedings of 1987 Crafoord Symposium. Oikos 57:25-41.
77. Schindler DW. 1991. Whole lake experiments in the Experimental Lakes Area. In: Mooney HA, Medina E, Schindler DW, Schulze E-D, Walker BH, editors. Ecosystem experiments: Scope 45. New York: John Wiley and Sons, p 122-39.
78. Schindler DW 1995. Linking species and communities to ecosystem management. In: Jones C, Lawton JH, editors. Linking species and ecosystems. New York: Chapman and Hall, p 313-25.
79. Schindler DW, Armstrong FAJ, Holmgren SK, Brunskill GJ. 1971. Eutrophication of Lake 227, Experimental Lakes Area (ELA), northwestern Ontario, by addition of phosphate and nitrate. J Fish Res Board Can 28:1763-82.
80. Schindler DW, Bayley SE, Parker BR, Beaty KG, Cruikshank DR, Fee EJ, Schindler EU, Stainton MP. 1996. The effects of climatic warming on the properties of boreal lakes and streams at the Experimental Lakes Area, Northwestern Ontario. Limnol Oceanogr 41:1004-17.
81. Schindler DW, Brunskill GJ, Emerson S, Broecker WS, Peng T-H. 1972. Atmospheric carbon dioxide: its role in maintaining phytoplankton standing crops. Science (Washington DC) 177: 1192-4.
82. Schindler DW, Comita GW 1972. The dependence of primary production upon physical and chemical factors in a small senescing lake, including the effects of complete winter oxygen depletion. Arch Hydrobiol 69:413-51.
83. Schindler DW, Fee EJ. 1975. The roles of nutrient cycling and radiant energy in aquatic communities. In: Cooper JP, editor. Photosynthesis and productivity in different environments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p 323-43. (International Biological Programme; 3.)
84. Schindler DW, Fee EJ, Ruszczynski T. 1978. Phosphorus input and its consequences for phytoplankton standing crop and production in the Experimental Lakes Area and in similar lakes. J Fish Res Board Can 35:190-6.
85. Schindler DW, Frost TM, Mills KH, Chang PSS, Davis IJ, Findlay DL, Malley DF, Shearer JA, Turner MA, Garrison PJ, and others. 1991. Comparisons between experimentally- and atmospherically-acidified lakes during stress and recovery. In: Last FT, Watling R, editors. Acidic deposition: its nature and impacts. Proc R Soc Edinb [B] 97:193-226.
86. Schindler DW, Hecky RE, Mills KH. 1993. Two decades of whole lake eutrophication and acidification experiments. In: Rasmussen L, Brydges T, Mathy P, editors. Experimental manipulations of biota and biogeochemical cycling in ecosystems. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, p 294-304.
87. Schindler DW, Hesslein RH, Turner MA. 1987. Exchange of nutrients between sediments and water after 15 years of experimental eutrophication. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 44 Suppl 1:26-33.
88. Schindler DW, Hesslein RH, Wagemann R, Broecker WS. 1980. Effects of acidification on mobilization of heavy metals and radionuclides from the sediments of a freshwater lake. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 37:373-7.
89. Schindler DW, Kling H, Schmidt RV, Prokopowich J, Frost VE, Reid RA, Capel M. 1973. Eutrophication of Lake 227 by addition of phosphate and nitrate: the second, third and fourth years of enrichment 1970, 1971 and 1972. J Fish Res Board Can 30:1415-40.
90. Schindler DW, Mills KH, Malley DF, Findlay DL, Shearer JA, Davies IJ, Turner MA, Linsey GA, Cruikshank DR. 1985. Long-term ecosystem stress: the effects of years of experimental acidification on a small lake. Science (Washington DC) 228:1395-401.
91. Shearer JA, Fee EJ, DeBruyn ER, DeClerq DR. 1987. Phytoplankton productivity changes in a small, double-basin lake in response to termination of experimental fertilization. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 44:47-54.
92. Smyly WJP. 1976. Some effects of enclosure on the zooplankton in a small lake. Freshwater Biol 6:241-51.
93. Vanni MJ, Findlay DL. 1990. Trophic cascades and phytoplankton community structure. Ecology 71:921-37.
94. Vincent WF, Neale PJ, Richerson PJ. 1984. Photoinhibition: algal responses to bright light during diel stratification and mixing in a tropical alpine lake. J Phycol 20:201-211.
95. Vollenweider RA. 1969. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen elementarer Modelle der Stoffbilanz von Seen. Arch Hydrobiol 66:1-36.
96. Vollenweider RA. 1976. Advances in defining critical loading levels for phosphorus in lake eutrophication. Mem Ist Ital Idrobiol 33:53-83.
97. Xenopoulos MA. 1997. Influence directe et indirecte du rayonnement ultraviolet-B sur la dynamique du phytoplancton [MSc thesis]. Montréal: University of Québec at Montréal.
98. Xenopoulos MA, Bird DF. 1997. Effect of acute exposure to hydrogen peroxide on the production of phytoplankton and bacterioplankton in a mesohumic lake. Photochem Photobiol 66:471-8.