Six-legged soldiers: Using insects as weapons of war

Six-Legged Soldiers: Using Insects as Weapons of War

Volumn , Issue , 2023, Pages 1-378

  Lockwood, Jeffrey A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 85199493148     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780195333053.001.0001     Document Type: Book

References (86)

1. Adrienne Mayor in Greek Fire, Poison Arrows, and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World (New York: Overlook Duckworth, 2003).
2. Edward Neufeld's paper, "Insects as Warfare Agents in the Ancient Near East," Orientalia, 49 (1980): 30-57
3. John Free's Bees and Mankind (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1982)
4. Robert Sutherland's two-part "The Importance of Bees in War Time," Southeastern Michigan Beekeepers' Association, 13 (2003).
5. John Ambrose, "Insects in Warfare," in Army (December 1974): 33-38.
6. Adrienne Mayor's Greek Fire, Poison Arrows, and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World (New York: Overlook Duckworth, 2003)
7. Robin Seager's Pompey the Great: A Political Biography (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2002)
8. Peter Greenhalgh's Pompey the Roman Alexander (Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 1981)
9. Frank Marsh's A History of the Roman World from 146 to 30 BC (London: Methuen, 1963).
10. Robert Root-Bernstein's article "Infectious Terrorism," The Atlantic (May 1991).
11. Descriptions of how ants have been used as instruments of torture include Once They Moved Like the Wind: Cochise, Geronimo, and the Apache Wars by David Roberts (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994)
12. Death in the Desert: The Fifty Years' War for the Great Southwest by Paul Wellman (New York: Macmillan, 1935).
13. Sir Alexander Burnes's Travels into Bokhara (London: Oxford University Press, 1973)
14. Peter Hopkirk's The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia (New York: Kodansha, 1992)
15. Karl Meyer and Shareen Brysac's Tournament of Shadows: The Great Game and the Race for Empire in Central Asia (Washington, D.C.: Counterpoint, 1999).
16. Dunston Ambrose's Assassin Bugs (Fairfield, N.H.: Science Publishers, 1999).
17. Andrew Robertson in "From Asps to Allegations: Biological Warfare in History," Military Medicine, 160 (1995): 369-373
18. Eric Croddy in Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002).
19. Erhard Geissler and John Ellis van Courtland Moon in Biological and Toxin Weapons: Research, Development and the Use from the Middle Ages to 1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
20. Perhaps the best overview of Napoleon's entomological trials and tribulations is Robert Peterson's article "Insects, Disease, and Military History" in American Entomologist, 41 (1995): 147-160.
21. David Chandler's The Campaigns of Napoleon (New York: Scribners, 1973)
22. Philippe Girard in Paradise Lost: Haiti's Tumultuous Journey from Pearl of the Caribbean to Third World Hotspot (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
23. The biology and ecology of the insect vectors of bubonic plague, yellow fever, and typhus can be found in Entomology in Human and Animal Health by Robert Harwood and Maurice James (New York: Macmillan, 1979).
24. Harvey Schultz, in the chapter "100 Years of Entomology in the Department of Defense," in Insect Potpourri: Adventures in Entomology (Gainesville, Fla.: Sandhill Crane Press, 1992)
25. Molly Crosby in The American Plague (New York: Berkley, 2007).
26. Paul Steiner in Disease in the Civil War: Natural Biological Warfare in 1861-1865 (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1968).
27. Gary Miller's 1997 paper, "Historical Natural History: Insects and the Civil War," American Entomologist, 43 (1997): 227-245
28. Gary Miller's 1997 paper Medical and Veterinary Entomology, edited by Gary Mullen and Lance Durden (New York: Elsevier, 2002).
29. Mark Wheelis, in the chapter "Biological Sabotage in World War I," in Biological and Toxin Weapons: Research, Development and the Use from the Middle Ages to 1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). Although the World Wide Web is notoriously suspect as a source of information, the Web site "Insects, Disease and History," entomol-ogy.montana.edu/historybug, edited by Drs. Gary Miller and Robert Peterson, is a first-rate source of historically and entomologically credible information, including the entry by David Tschanz on "Typhus Fever on the Eastern Front in World War I."
30. The biological warfare program of the Japanese in World War II is extensively documented, but the entomological weapons development and delivery is most vividly recounted in Unit 731 Testimony by Hal Gold (Singapore: Yen Books, 1996)
31. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-1945, and the American Cover-Up by Sheldon Harris (New York: Routledge, 2002)
32. A Plague Upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation by Daniel Barenblatt (New York: HarperCollins, 2004).
33. The chilling transcripts of the Khabarovsk Trial are available as Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged with Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950).
34. Robert Harris and Jeremy Paxman in A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare (New York: Random House, 2002).
35. Erhard Geissler and John Ellis van Courtland Moon in Biological and Toxin Weapons: Research, Development and the Use from the Middle Ages to 1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999)
36. Benjamin Garrett in his 1996 paper, "The Colorado Potato Beetle Goes to War," Chemical Weapons Convention Bulletin, 33 (1996): 2-3.
37. Eric Croddy in Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002).
38. Ed Regis's The Biology of Doom: The History of America's Secret Germ Warfare Project (New York: Henry Holt, 2000)
39. B. J. Bernstein's article "The Birth of the U.S. Biological-Warfare Program," Scientific American, 256 (1987): 116-121
40. Norman Covert's Cutting Edge: The History of Fort Detrick, available at detrick.army.mil/detrick/cutting_edge
41. Milton Leitenberg's paper "Biological Weapons in the Twentieth Century: A Review and Analysis" for the 7th International Symposium on Protection against Chemical and Biological Warfare in Stockholm, Sweden, 2001.
42. C. M. Wheeler in "Control of Typhus in Italy 1943-1944 by Use of DDT," American Journal of Public Health, 36 (1946): 119-129.
43. Robin Clarke's The Silent Weapons (New York: David McKay, 1968)
44. John Cookson and Judith Nottingham's A Survey of Chemical and Biological Warfare (New York: Monthly Review, 1969)
45. Stephen Endicott and Edward Hagerman's The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998).
46. Stephen Endicott and Edward Hagerman's The original Report of the International Scientific Commission for the Investigation of the Facts Concerning Bacterial Warfare in Korea and China (Peking: International Scientific Commission, 1952)
47. Milton Leitenberg's 1998 paper, "The Korean War Biological Warfare Allegations Resolved," Center for Pacific Asia Studies at Stockholm University, Occasional Paper 36.
48. Alistair Hay's paper, "A Magic Sword or a Big Itch: An Historical Look at the United States Biological Weapons Programme," Medicine, Conflict and Survival, 15 (1999): 215-234.
49. Alistair Hay's paper Portions of An Evaluation of Entomological Warfare as a Potential Danger to the United States and European NATO Nations by William H. Rose (Dugway, Utah: U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command, 1981) can be viewed at thesmokinggun.com/archive/mosquitoi.html.
50. Ed Regis's The Biology of Doom: The History of America's Secret Germ Warfare Project (New York: Henry Holt, 2000)
51. Robert Harris and Jeremy Paxman's A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare (New York: Random House, 2002).
52. John Ambrose, "Insects in Warfare," Army (December 1974): 33-38
53. John Ambrose "Entomological Warfare: History of the Use of Insects as Weapons of War," Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America, 33 (1987): 76-82.
54. John Cookson and Judith Nottingham in A Survey of Chemical and Biological Warfare (New York: Monthly Review, 1969).
55. Thomas Seeley et al., "Yellow Rain," Scientific American (September 1985): 128-137
56. Jonathan Tucker, "The 'Yellow Rain' Controversy: Lessons for Arms Control Compliance," The Nonproliferation Review (Spring 2001): 25-41.
57. The dengue outbreak is described in "Hemorrhagic Dengue in Cuba: History of an Epidemic" by Gustavo Kourf, Maria G. Guzman, and José Bravo, PAHO Bulletin, 20 (1986): 24-30
58. "U.S. Biological Warfare: The 1981 Cuba Dengue Epidemic" by Bill Schaap, Covert Action (Summer 1982): 28-31.
59. Eric Croddy in Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002) and on the Web site afrocubaweb.com/biowar.htm. Litanies of Cuban accusations can be found at greenleft.org.au/back/2003/561/561p12.htm and cuba.cu/gobierno/documentos/2002/ing/m2405021.html.
60. Milton Leitenberg in "Biological Weapons in the Twentieth Century: A Review and Analysis," 7th International Symposium on Protection against Chemical and Biological Warfare, Stockholm, Sweden, 2001.
61. The use of Medflies as weapons is addressed in Countering Agricultural Bioterrorism (Washington, D.C.: National Research Council of the National Academies, 2003).
62. Newspaper coverage of the Breeders' case includes "Female Medfly Found in Sun Valley Close to Area Targeted Earlier," Los Angeles Times (January 4, 1990): B3
63. "Officials Advertise to Contact Mystery Group Claiming Medfly Releases," Los Angeles Times (February 10, 1990): A13
64. "Mystery Letter Puts a Strange Twist on Latest Medfly Crisis," Los Angeles Times (December 3, 1988): B1.
65. How insects might be used to attack agriculture is discussed in SIPRI's Environmental Warfare: A Technical, Legal, and Policy Appraisal (London: Taylor & Francis, 1984)
66. A. H. Westing, and "Food and Agricultural Security," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 894 (1999)
67. T. W. Frazier and D. C. Richardson. The damage done by invasive species is described in "New York's Battle with the Asian Long-Horned Beetle" by R. A. Haack et al., Journal of Forestry, 95 (1997): 11-15
68. S. B. Vinson, "Invasion of the Red Imported Fire Ant: Spread, Biology, and Impact," American Entomologist (Spring 1997): 23-38
69. S. B. Vinson California Agricultural Research Priorities: Pierce's Disease (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2004).
70. Judith Miller, Stephen Engelberg, and William Broad in Germs: Biological Weapons and America's Secret War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002)
71. Richard Preston in "West Nile Mystery," The New Yorker (October 18-25, 1999): 90-107.
72. John Ambrose, "Insects in Warfare," Army (December 1974): 33-38.
73. Robin Clarke in The Silent Weapons (New York: David McKay, 1968)
74. John Cookson and Judith Nottingham in A Survey of Chemical and Biological Warfare (New York: Monthly Review, 1969)
75. Robert Harris and Jeremy Paxman in A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare (New York: Random House, 2002).
76. Jerry Bromenshenk et al. in "Can Honey Bees Assist in Area Reduction and Landmine Detection?" Journal of Mine Action, 7.3 (2003).
77. P. Garrison, Air and Space (April/May 2000): 54-61
78. P. Garrison, "Micro Warfare," Popular Mechanics (February 2001): 62-65.
79. P. Garrison, The potential of genetic engineering of insects is considered in Biotechnology and the Future of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention, SIPRI Fact Sheet, November 2001
80. Raymond Zilinskas's paper "Possible Terrorist Use of Modern Biotechnology Techniques," 2000 Conference on Biosecurity and Bioterrorism, Rome (mi.infn.it/~landnet/Biosec/zilinskasi.pdf). Various Web sites developed by university researchers provide insights on insect-based robotic systems, including enme.ucalgary.ca/~aramirez/AR2S-Lab-Projects.html (University of Calgary's hexapod device), conceptlab.com/roachbot/ (University of California Irvine's cockroach cyborg), and neuromechanics.cwru. edu/news/igertnews3.htm and biorobots.cwru.edu/projects/billant/ (Case Western Reserve University's cockroach and ant projects).
81. Benjamin Garrett Nonproliferation, Demilitarization, and Arms Control, 5-6 (2000): 11-12
82. Jonathan Ban, Chemical and Biological Arms Institute, 9 (June 2000)
83. Rocco Casagrande, Nonproliferation Review (Fall/Winter 2000): 92-105
84. Rocco Casagrande, Covert Biological Weapons Attacks Against Agricultural Targets: Assessing the Impact Against U.S. Agriculture, by Jason Pate and Gavin Cameron, Discussion Paper 2001-9 of the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs
85. Rocco Casagrande, Countering Agricultural Bioterrorism (Washington, D.C.: National Research Council of the National Academies, 2003)
86. Rocco Casagrande, "Assessing the Agroterror Threat" by Steve Nash, The Scientist (May 10, 2004): 50-51.