THE NON-COMPLIANCE PROCEDURE OF THE AARHUS CONVENTION: BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN RIGHTS CONTROL MECHANISMS

Italian Yearbook of International Law

Volumn 16, Issue , 2007, Pages 85-116

  Pitea, Cesar ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PARMA   (Italy)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 85183171950     PISSN: 03915107     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (219)

1. Aarhus, 25 June 1998, entered into force the 30 October 2001, reprinted in ILM, 1999, p. 517 ff.
2. MCALLISTER, "The Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making, and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters", Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy, 1998, p. 187 ff.;
3. LEE and ABBOT, "The Usual Suspects? Public Participation Under the Aarhus Convention", Modern Law Review, 2003, p. 80 ff.;
4. MORGERA, "An Update on the Aarhus Convention and Its Continued Global Relevance", RECIEL, 2005, p. 138 ff.;
5. WATES, "The Aarhus Convention: A Driving Force for Environmental Democracy", Journal for European Environmental and Planning Law, 2005, p. 2 ff.
6. Doc. ECE/MP.PP/2/Add.8. References to Decision I/7
7. KOESTER, "Review of Compliance under the Aarhus Convention: A Rather Unique Compliance Mechanism", Journal of European Environmental and Planning Law, 2005, p. 31 ff.;
8. ID., "The Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention)", in ULFSTEIN, MARAUHN and ZIMMERMANN (eds.), Making Treaties Work. Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control, Cambridge, 2007, p. 179 ff.;
9. ID, "The Compliance Committee of the Aarhus Convention. An Overview of Procedures and Jurisprudence", Environmental Policy and Law, 2007, p. 83 ff.;
10. MARSHALL, "Two Years in the Life: The Pioneering Aarhus Convention Compliance Committee 2004-2006", International Community Law Review, 2006, p. 123 ff.
11. KRAVCHENKO, "The Aarhus Convention and Innovations in Compliance with Multilateral Environmental Agreements", Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy, 2007, p. 1 ff.
12. GOOTE and LEFEBER, Compliance Building under the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, CGRFA Background Study Paper No. 20, 2003, available at:
13. BEYERLIN, STOLL and WOLFRUM (eds.), Ensuring Compliance with Multilateral Environmental Agreements, Leiden/Boston, 2006.
14. Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer to the Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Montreal, 1987, entered into force the 1st January 1989, ILM, pp. 1529 and 1550.
15. The mechanism has been set up by MOP Decision IV/5, doc. UNEP/OzL.Pro.4/15, Annex IV (1992), p. 44
16. Decision X/10, UNEP/OzL.Pro.10/9 (1998), Annex II, p. 47 (Montreal NCP).
17. PITEA, "NGOs in Non-Compliance Mechanisms under Multilateral Environmental Agreements. From Tolerance to Recognition?", in TREVES, TANZI, FRIGESSI DI RATTALMA, FODELLA, PITEA, and RAGNI (eds.), Civil Society, International Courts and Compliance Bodies, The Hague, 2005, p. 205 ff.
18. See also VOÏNOV KOHLER, Le mécanisme de contrôle du respect du Protocole de Kyoto sur les changements climatiques: entre diplomatie et droit, Zurich, 2006, pp. 86-87.
19. See Report of the First Meeting of the Parties, Doc. ECE/MP.PP/2, para. 45
20. Annex, reprinted in Environmental Policy & Law, 2003, p. 178
21. HANDL, "International 'Lawmaking' by Conferences of the Parties and Other Politically Mandated Bodies", in WOLFRUM and RÖBEN (eds.), Developments of International Law in Treaty Making, Berlin et al., 2005, p. 126
22. Decision II/5, doc. ECE/MP.PP/2005/2/Add.6.
23. Report on the Third Meeting, doc. MP.PP/C.1/2004/2, paras. 20 ff.
24. See Report on the Twelfth Meeting, doc. ECE/MP.PP/C.1/2006/4, paras. 33-39
25. Report on the Thirteenth Meeting, doc. ECE/MP.PP/C.1/2006/6, paras. 33-36.
26. SACHARIEW, "Promoting Compliance with Environmental Legal Standards: Refiections on Monitoring and Reporting Mechanisms", YIEL, 1991, p. 31 ff., p. 33;
27. MARAUHN, "Towards a Procedural Law of Compliance Control in International Environmental Relations", ZAÖRV, 1996, p. 696 ff., p. 713.
28. See MARAUHN, ibidem, pp. 712-713
29. VOÏNOV KOHLER, cit. supra note 8, pp. 86-87;
30. MORGERA, cit. supra note 1, p. 140;
31. KOESTER, "Review", cit. supra note 2, p. 34.
32. MILLER, Independence of the International Judiciary: General Overview of the Issues, 2002, both available at:
33. MACKENZIE and SANDS, "International Courts and Tribunals and the Independence of the International Judge", Harvard ILJ, 2003, p. 271
34. SHELTON, "Legal Norms for Independence and Accountability of International Tribunals", Law and Practice of International Courts and Tribunals, 2003, p. 27 ff.
35. So far three Committee's members have been replaced through this procedure, see Report on the Eighth Meeting, doc. ECE/MP.PP/C.1/2005/4, para. 27
36. Report on the Eleventh Meeting, doc. ECE/MP.PP/C.1/2006/2, para. 38
37. Report on the Twelfth Meeting, cit. supra note 14, para. 2.
38. See KOESTER, "Review", cit. supra note 2, p. 34.
39. See Report on the First Meeting of the Task Force on Compliance Mechanisms, doc. CEP/ WG.5/2000/4, Annex II, para. 3.
40. See Report on the First Meeting, doc. MP.PP/C.1/2003/2, para. 22
41. Report on the Fifth Meeting, doc. MP.PP/C.1/2004/6, para. 53;
42. Guidance Document on Aarhus Convention Compliance Mechanism, available at: , p. 10.
43. SAROOSHI, "The Legal Framework Governing United Nations Subsidiary Organs", BYIL, 1996, p. 413
44. CHURCHILL and ULFSTEIN, "Autonomous Institutional Arrangements in Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Little-Noticed Phenomenon in International Law", AJIL, 2000, p. 623
45. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 11.
46. Effect of Awards of Compensation Made by the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion of 13 July 1954, ICJ Reports, 1954, p. 47.
47. SAROOSHI, cit. supra note 25, p. 415
48. See Decision I/13 on Financial Arrangements, doc. ECE/MP.PP/2/Add.14.
49. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 11, and Guidance Document, cit.
50. Decision I/1 on Rules of Procedure, doc. ECE/MP.PP/2/Add.2.
51. See KOESTER, "The Compliance Committee", cit. supra note 2, p. 85.
52. See WATES, "NGOs and the Aarhus Convention", in TREVES et al. (eds.), cit. supra note 7, p. 167 ff.
53. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 11, and Guidance Document, p. 8.
54. Report on the Second Meeting, doc. MP.PP/C.1/2003/4, para. 9.
55. Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24.
56. See KOSKENNIEMI, "Breach of Treaty or Non-Compliance? Refiections on the Enforcement of the Montreal Protocol", YIEL, 1992, p. 123 ff., p. 133
57. See Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, p. 7.
58. Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts adopted by the International Law Commission, Report of the International Law Commission, Fifty-third session, 2001, doc. A/56/10, p. 43 ff. (ILC Articles on State Responsibility), Arts. 42 and 48.
59. See Submission No. ACCC/S/2004/01, available at:
60. Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, p. 13.
61. MOP in accordance with Decision I/8 on Reporting Requirements, doc. ECE/MP.PP/2/Add.9. Such prerogatives are not affected by Decision I/7, see Guidance Document, ibidem, p. 12.
62. See VOÏNOV KOHLER, cit. supra note 8, p. 103
63. See GOOTE and LEFEBER, cit. supra note 4, p. 11
64. ADSETT, DANIEL, HUSAIN and MCDORMAN, "Compliance Committees and Recent Multilateral Environmental Agreements: The Canadian Experience with Their Negotiation and Operation", Annuaire canadien de droit international, 2004, p. 91 ff., p. 109.
65. Report on the Fifth Meeting, cit. supra note 24, paras. 14-15.
66. Report of the Working Group on Compliance and Rules of Procedure, doc. CEP/WG.5/AC.1/2001/2, Annex II, pp. 24- 26.
67. See Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 21;
68. Report on the Fourth Meeting, doc. MP.PP/C.1/2004/4, paras. 27-29;
69. Decision I/7, Annex, para. 16, Report on the Second Meeting, cit. supra note 38, para. 17, and Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, p. 12.
70. See Report on the Second Meeting, cit. supra note 38, para. 16
71. Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, pp. 12-14.
72. KOESTER, "Review", cit. supra note 2, p. 39.
73. Report on the Fourth Meeting, cit. supra note 50, paras. 23-24.
74. Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, p. 13.
75. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 19;
76. Report on the Fourth Meeting, cit. supra note 50, paras. 20 and 35.
77. Report on the Fourth Meeting, ibidem, para. 20.
78. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 27.
79. Report on the Fourth Meeting, cit. supra note 50, para. 32.
80. Report on the Fifth Meeting, cit. supra note 24, paras. 33-34.
81. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 28.
82. Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, p. 32.
83. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 37.
84. Comm. ACCC/C/2004/09, Armenia, Preliminary determination on admissibility, 24 September 2004, paras. 4-5.
85. Report on the Fifth Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 28.
86. Comm. ACCC/C/2004/02, Kazakhstan, Preliminary determination on admissibility, 14 May 2004, para. 4.
87. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 36.
88. Report on the First Meeting, ibidem, para. 26.
89. Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, p. 29.
90. See HRC, Könye and Könye v. Hungary (Comm. 520/1992), Decision of 7 April 1994, Doc. CCPR/C/50/D/520/1992 (1994), para. 6.4
91. JOSEPH, SHULTZ and CASTAN, The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Cases, Materials and Commentary, Oxford, 2005, pp. 34-35.
92. See HANDL, "Compliance Control Mechanisms and International Environmental Obligations", Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law, 1997, p. 29 ff., p. 34
93. GOOTE and LEFEBER, cit. supra note 4, p. 5
94. See Report on the Fifth Meeting, cit. supra note 24, paras. 35-48.
95. For a fairly detailed description of the form of discussion see Report on the Fifth Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 40.
96. See EHRMANN, "Procedures of Compliance Control in International Environmental Treaties", Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy, 2002, p. 377
97. Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, pp. 20-24.
98. Guidance Document, ibidem, p. 24.
99. Report on the Fifth Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 25.
100. Decision I/7, Annex, para. 33;
101. Report on the Fourth Meeting, cit. supra note 50, paras. 39-40
102. Guidance Document, ibidem, pp. 15-16.
103. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 15;
104. Report on the Eighth Meeting, cit. supra note 21, para. 29;
105. Report on the Ninth Meeting, doc. ECE/MP.PP/C.1/2005/6, para. 5;
106. Report on the Eleventh Meeting, cit. supra note 21, para. 39.
107. See generally MARAUHN, cit. supra note 15, pp. 722-730.
108. EHRMANN, cit. supra note 80, p. 396
109. SHIBATA, "Ensuring Compliance with the Basel Convention - Its Unique Features", in BEYERLIN, STOLL and WOLFRUM (eds.), cit. supra note 4, p. 69
110. Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, pp. 12, 13 and 17.
111. Report on the Sixth Meeting, doc. MP.PP/C.1/2004/8, para. 36
112. Guidance Document, ibidem, pp. 17 and 19.
113. Guidance Document, ibidem, p. 17.
114. Report on the Second Meeting, cit. supra note 38, para. 12.
115. See CHAYES and CHAYES, The New Sovereignty. Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements, Cambridge-London, 1995, p. 135 ff.;
116. CHAYES, CHAYES and MITCHELL, "Active Compliance Management in Environmental Treaties", in LANG (ed.), Sustainable Development and International Law, London, 1995, p. 75
117. MARAUHN, cit. supra note 15, p. 728.
118. See HANDL, cit. supra note 76, p. 42
119. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, paras. 16-17.
120. Report on the Second Meeting, cit. supra note 38, paras. 10 and 20.
121. On publicity of document see Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, p. 9.
122. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 38.
123. On confidentiality see Report on the First Meeting, ibidem, para. 39
124. Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, pp. 34-35.
125. Report on the Fourth Meeting, cit. supra note 50, para. 32.
126. See doc. ECE/MP.PP/C.1/2006/4/Add.2, relating to a communication on access to justice by NGOs in Belgium.
127. Report on the First Meeting, cit. supra note 24, para. 42.
128. CHAYES and CHAYES, cit. supra note 98, p. 17 ff.
129. VOÏNOV KOHLER, cit. supra note 8, p. 107
130. doc. ECE/MP.PP/C.1/2005/2/Add.2, para. 31.
131. Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, p. 18.
132. UNEP Guidelines on Compliance with and Enforcement of Multilateral Environmental Agreements, doc. UNEP(DEPI)/MEAs/WG.1/3, Annex II, para. 9.
133. EHRMANN, cit. supra note 80, p. 433.
134. See KOSKENNIEMI, cit. supra note 40, p. 145
135. EHRMANN, ibidem, pp. 437-438.
136. KOSKENNIEMI, ibidem, p. 145 (the NCP is not a mechanism to produce an assessment of wrongfulness of a conduct).
137. BIRNIE and BOYLE, International Law and the Environment, 2nd ed., Oxford, 2002, p. 207
138. LALY-CHEVALIER, La violation du traité, Bruxelles, 2005, Chapitre II, p. 83 ff.
139. Doc. ECE/MP.PP/C.1/2005/2/Add.5 and Decision II/5c on Compliance by Turkmenistan with its obligations under the Aarhus Convention, doc. ECE/MP.PP/2005/2/Add.9.
140. Doc. ECE/MP.PP/C.1/2005/2/Add.4, para. 18.
141. See, for example, doc. ECE/MP.PP/2005/13 and its addenda.
142. Report on the Tenth Meeting, doc. ECE/MP.PP/C.1/2005/8, para. 12.
143. CHAYES and CHAYES, cit. supra note 98, pp. 32-33.
144. KOSKENNIEMI, "Comment on the Paper by Antonia Handler-Chayes, Abram Chayes and Ronald B. Mitchell", in LANG (ed.), cit. supra note 98, p. 91
145. DOWNS, ROCKE and BARSOOM, "Is the Good New about Compliance Good News about Cooperation?", Int. Org., 1996, p. 379
146. COMBACAU, "Sanctions", Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Vol. 4, 2000, p. 311
147. ABI-SAAB, "The Concept of Sanction in International Law", in GOWLLAND-DEBBAS (ed.), United Nations Sanctions and International Law, The Hague et al., 2001, p. 29 ff.
148. JACOBSON and BROWN WEISS, "Assessing the Record and Designing Strategies to Engage Countries", in BROWN WEISS and JACOBSON (eds.), Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with International Environmental Accords, Cambridge, MA, 1998, p. 511.
149. CHAYES and CHAYES, cit. supra note 98, pp. 109-110
150. CHAYES, CHAYES and MITCHELL, cit. supra note 98.
151. SAND, "Sanctions in Case of Non-Compliance and State Responsibility: Pacta Sunt Servanda - Or Else?", in BEYERLIN, STOLL and WOLFRUM (eds.), cit. supra note 4, p. 259 ff.
152. JACOBSON and BROWN WEISS, cit. supra note 121, pp. 547-548
153. DOWNS, ROCKE and BARSOOM, cit. supra note 120.
154. also KOLARI, "Constructing Non-Compliance Systems into International Environmental Agreements - A Rise of Enforcement Doctrine with Credible Sanctions Needed", Finnish Yearbook of International Law, 2003, p. 205
155. FITZMAURICE and REDGWELL, "Environmental Non-Compliance Procedures and International Law", NYIL, 2000, p. 35
156. JACOBSON and BROWN WEISS, cit. supra note 121, p. 542
157. KOLARI, ibidem, note 125, p. 213 and pp. 216-217
158. VOÏNOV KOHLER, cit. supra note 8, pp. 106-107
159. BRUNNÉE, "Enforcement Mechanisms in International Law and International Environmental Law", in BEYERLIN, STOLL and WOLFRUM (eds.), cit. supra note 4, p. 1
160. PINESCHI, "Responsabilità internazionale e procedure di non-compliance", in FOIS (ed.), Il principio dello sviluppo sostenibile nel diritto internazionale ed europeo dell'ambiente, Napoli, 2007, p. 430.
161. HANDL, cit. supra note 76, p. 45
162. KOESTER, "Review", cit. supra note 2, p. 33
163. See US Statement, cit. supra note 9, p. 20.
164. See HANDL, cit. supra note 9
165. See WOLFRUM and FRIEDRICH, "The Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol", in BEYERLIN, STOLL and WOLFRUM (eds.), cit. supra note 4, p. 53 ff., p. 60
166. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), 23 May 1969, 1155 UNTS 331, Art. 31.2(a).
167. On this issue see generally KOSKENNIEMI, cit. supra note 40;
168. FITZMAURICE and REDGWELL, cit. supra note 126;
169. PINESCHI, cit. supra note 127, pp. 456-461.
170. GEHRING, "International Environmental Regimes: Dynamic Sectoral Legal Systems", YIEL, 1990, p. 35
171. DUPUY (P.-M.), "Sur le maintien ou la disparition de l'unité de l'ordre juridique international", in BEN ACHOUR and LAGHMANI, Harmonie et contradictions en droit international, Paris, 1996, pp. 17-54
172. But see KOSKENNIEMI, cit. supra note 40, p. 139
173. CRAWFORD and OLLESON, "The Exception of Non-Performance: Links between the Law of Treaties and the Law of State Responsibility", Australian Yearbook of International Law, 2001, p. 55 ff.
174. WOLFRUM, "Means of Ensuring Compliance with and Enforcement of International Environmental Law", RCADI, 1999, Vol. 272, p. 9
175. HANDL, cit. supra note 76
176. KOESTER, "The Convention", cit. supra note 2, pp. 214-215.
177. See KOSKENNIEMI, cit. supra note 40, p. 142
178. See ADSETT et al., cit. supra note 47, p. 115.
179. Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion of 21 June 1971, ICJ Reports, 1971, p. 16 ff.
180. ROSENNE, Breach of Treaty, Cambridge, 1985
181. GOMAA, Suspension or Termination of Treaties on Grounds of Breach, The Hague, 1996.
182. Gabfiíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), ICJ Reports, 1997, p. 7 ff., p. 56
183. PISILLO MAZZESCHI, "Termination and Suspension of Treaties for Breach in the ILC Works on State Responsibility", in SPINEDI and SIMMA (eds.), United Nations Codification of State Responsibility, New York et al., 1987, p. 57 ff
184. TAMS, Enforcing Obligations Erga Omnes in International Law, Cambridge, 2005, pp. 249-251
185. KOSKENNIEMI, cit. supra note 40, pp. 141-146
186. PINESCHI, cit. supra note 127, p. 22.
187. For a similar argument see BRUNNÉE, "COPing with Consent: Law-Making under Multilateral Environmental Agreements", Leiden JIL, 2002, p. 1 ff., p. 29.
188. ADSETT et al., cit. supra note 47, pp. 115-116.
189. Guidance Document, cit. supra note 24, p. 18.
190. See KOLARI, cit. supra note 125, pp. 215
191. KOESTER, "The Convention", cit. supra note 2, pp. 208-209.
192. See VICTOR, "Enforcing International Law: Implications for an Effective Global Warming Regime", Duke Environmental Law and Policy Forum, 1999, p. 147
193. PINESCHI, cit. supra note 127, p. 24
194. Decision II/5 on General Issues of Compliance, doc. ECE/MP.PP/2005/2/Add.6, para. 3.
195. See also VOÏNOV KOHLER, cit. supra note 8, p. 119;
196. KOESTER, "Review", cit. supra note 2, p. 39.
197. See PCIJ, Question of Jaworzina (Polish-Czechoslovakian Frontier), Advisory Opinion of 6 December 1923, Series B, No. 8, p. 37
198. See CHURCHILL and ULFSTEIN, cit. supra note 25, pp. 641-642
199. See KOSKENNIEMI, cit. supra note 40, p. 157 ff.;
200. FITZMAURICE and REDGWELL, cit. supra note 126, p. 43 ff.;
201. SANDS, "Non-compliance and Dispute Settlement", in BEYERLIN, STOLL and WOLFRUM (eds.), cit. supra note 4, p. 39 ff., p. 352 ff.;
202. KOESTER, "The Convention", cit. supra note 2, p. 213.
203. LALY-CHEVALIER, cit. supra note 113, p. 225 ff.
204. See BRUNNÉE, cit. supra note 146, p. 32
205. KOSKENNIEMI, cit. supra note 40, p. 146;
206. CHURCHILL and ULFSTEIN, cit. supra note 25, pp. 639-642;
207. ADSETT et al., cit. supra note 47, p. 103.
208. See ULFSTEIN, "Reweaving the Fabric of International Law? Patterns of Consent in Environmental Framework Agreements", in BEYERLIN, STOLL and WOLFRUM (eds.), cit. supra note 4, p. 145
209. KOESTER, "Review", cit. supra note 2, p. 39
210. See HANDL, "Controlling Implementation of and Compliance with International Environmental Commitments: The Rocky Road from Rio", Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy, 1994, p. 305 ff., p. 329.
211. See MARAUHN, cit. supra note 15, p. 731;
212. RÖBEN, "Institutional Developments under Modern International Environmental Agreements", Max Planck UNYB, 2000, p. 363
213. HANDL, cit. supra note 76, p. 45;
214. VOÏNOV KOHLER, cit. supra note 8, pp. 115-116;
215. KOESTER, "The Convention", cit. supra note 2, p. 204.
216. ADSETT et al., cit. supra note 47, p. 106
217. HANDL, cit. supra note 76, p. 40
218. VOÏNOV KOHLER, ibidem, p. 104, note 500
219. PITEA, "The Legal Status of NGOs in Non-Compliance Procedures: An Assessment of Law and Practice", in DUPUY and VIERUCCI (eds.), NGOs in International Law: Efficiency in Flexibility, forthcoming.