PROTECTION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY IN ARMED CONFLICT

Israel Yearbook on Human Rights

Volumn 32, Issue , 2002, Pages 305-338

  Wolfrum, Rüdiger ^a  

^a MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR COMPARATIVE PUBLIC LAW AND INTERNATIONAL LAW   (Germany)

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EID: 85174951627     PISSN: 03335925     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1163/9789004423169_009     Document Type: Chapter

References (72)

1. K.J. Partsch, "Protection of Cultural Property", in The Handbook of Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts 377 (D. Fleck ed., 1995); H. Strebel, "Die Haager Konvention zum Schutze der Kulturgüter im Falle eines bewaffneten Konfliktes vom 15. Mai 1954", 16 ZaöRV 39 (1955/56).
2. K.J. Partsch, "Protection of Cultural Property", in The Handbook of Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts 377 (D. Fleck ed., 1995); H. Strebel, "Die Haager Konvention zum Schutze der Kulturgüter im Falle eines bewaffneten Konfliktes vom 15. Mai 1954", 16 ZaöRV 39 (1955/56).
3. For the histoiy until the Second World War see: P. Verri in Acts of the Symposion of the Instituto Internazionale di Diritto Umanitario (IIDU) 41-68 (1986); hereinafter: Acts of the IIDU Symposion. S.E. Nahlik, "La Protection Internationale des Biens Culurels en Cas de Conflit Armé", 120 Recueil des Cours 61 (1967/1).
4. For the histoiy until the Second World War see: P. Verri in Acts of the Symposion of the Instituto Internazionale di Diritto Umanitario (IIDU) 41-68 (1986); hereinafter: Acts of the IIDU Symposion. S.E. Nahlik, "La Protection Internationale des Biens Culurels en Cas de Conflit Armé", 120 Recueil des Cours 61 (1967/1).
5. See, for example, Art. 247 of the 1919 Peace Treaty of Versailles, 225 C.T.S. 189 (C. Parry ed., 1981).
6. See in particular E. Brown Weiss, Fairness to Future Generations: International Law, Common Patrimony and Intergenerational Equity (1989).
7. See H. Abtahi, "The Protection of Cultural Property in Times of Armed Conflict: The Practice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", 14 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 1 (2000); K. J. Delting, "Eternal Silence: The Destruction of Cultural Property in Yugoslavia", 17 Md J. Int'l L. & Trade 41, at 66-67 (1993). Particularly on the destruction of cultural property during the conflict in former Yugoslavia see: Dubrovnik 1991-1992: Cultural Properties Damages by Shelling (UNESCO, 1993); Information Report on the Destruction by War of the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 2 February 1993); Second Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 12 June 1993); Third Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 20 September 1993); F. Maniscalco, lus Praedae: La Tutela dei Beni Culturali in Guerra (1999).
8. See H. Abtahi, "The Protection of Cultural Property in Times of Armed Conflict: The Practice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", 14 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 1 (2000); K. J. Delting, "Eternal Silence: The Destruction of Cultural Property in Yugoslavia", 17 Md J. Int'l L. & Trade 41, at 66-67 (1993). Particularly on the destruction of cultural property during the conflict in former Yugoslavia see: Dubrovnik 1991-1992: Cultural Properties Damages by Shelling (UNESCO, 1993); Information Report on the Destruction by War of the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 2 February 1993); Second Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 12 June 1993); Third Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 20 September 1993); F. Maniscalco, lus Praedae: La Tutela dei Beni Culturali in Guerra (1999).
9. See H. Abtahi, "The Protection of Cultural Property in Times of Armed Conflict: The Practice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", 14 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 1 (2000); K. J. Delting, "Eternal Silence: The Destruction of Cultural Property in Yugoslavia", 17 Md J. Int'l L. & Trade 41, at 66-67 (1993). Particularly on the destruction of cultural property during the conflict in former Yugoslavia see: Dubrovnik 1991-1992: Cultural Properties Damages by Shelling (UNESCO, 1993); Information Report on the Destruction by War of the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 2 February 1993); Second Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 12 June 1993); Third Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 20 September 1993); F. Maniscalco, lus Praedae: La Tutela dei Beni Culturali in Guerra (1999).
10. See H. Abtahi, "The Protection of Cultural Property in Times of Armed Conflict: The Practice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", 14 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 1 (2000); K. J. Delting, "Eternal Silence: The Destruction of Cultural Property in Yugoslavia", 17 Md J. Int'l L. & Trade 41, at 66-67 (1993). Particularly on the destruction of cultural property during the conflict in former Yugoslavia see: Dubrovnik 1991-1992: Cultural Properties Damages by Shelling (UNESCO, 1993); Information Report on the Destruction by War of the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 2 February 1993); Second Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 12 June 1993); Third Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 20 September 1993); F. Maniscalco, lus Praedae: La Tutela dei Beni Culturali in Guerra (1999).
11. See H. Abtahi, "The Protection of Cultural Property in Times of Armed Conflict: The Practice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", 14 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 1 (2000); K. J. Delting, "Eternal Silence: The Destruction of Cultural Property in Yugoslavia", 17 Md J. Int'l L. & Trade 41, at 66-67 (1993). Particularly on the destruction of cultural property during the conflict in former Yugoslavia see: Dubrovnik 1991-1992: Cultural Properties Damages by Shelling (UNESCO, 1993); Information Report on the Destruction by War of the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 2 February 1993); Second Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 12 June 1993); Third Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 20 September 1993); F. Maniscalco, lus Praedae: La Tutela dei Beni Culturali in Guerra (1999).
12. See H. Abtahi, "The Protection of Cultural Property in Times of Armed Conflict: The Practice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", 14 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 1 (2000); K. J. Delting, "Eternal Silence: The Destruction of Cultural Property in Yugoslavia", 17 Md J. Int'l L. & Trade 41, at 66-67 (1993). Particularly on the destruction of cultural property during the conflict in former Yugoslavia see: Dubrovnik 1991-1992: Cultural Properties Damages by Shelling (UNESCO, 1993); Information Report on the Destruction by War of the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 2 February 1993); Second Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 12 June 1993); Third Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 20 September 1993); F. Maniscalco, lus Praedae: La Tutela dei Beni Culturali in Guerra (1999).
13. See H. Abtahi, "The Protection of Cultural Property in Times of Armed Conflict: The Practice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", 14 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 1 (2000); K. J. Delting, "Eternal Silence: The Destruction of Cultural Property in Yugoslavia", 17 Md J. Int'l L. & Trade 41, at 66-67 (1993). Particularly on the destruction of cultural property during the conflict in former Yugoslavia see: Dubrovnik 1991-1992: Cultural Properties Damages by Shelling (UNESCO, 1993); Information Report on the Destruction by War of the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 2 February 1993); Second Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 12 June 1993); Third Information Report on War Damage to the Cultural Heritage in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (Council of Europe, 20 September 1993); F. Maniscalco, Lus Praedae: La Tutela dei Beni Culturali in Guerra (1999).
14. Art. 35.
15. Art. 34 in connection with Art. 31.
16. See the comparison of texts, 16 ZaöRV 76-77 (1955/56), (documents concerning the protection of cultural property in armed conflicts).
17. 249 U.N.T.S. 240; as to its legislative history see K.-H. Buhse, Der Schutz von Kulturgut im Krieg 50 (1959); E. Lattmann, Der Schutz der Kulturgüter bei bewaffneten Konflikten 57(1974).
18. 249 U.N.T.S. 240; as to its legislative history see K.-H. Buhse, Der Schutz von Kulturgut im Krieg 50 (1959); E. Lattmann, Der Schutz der Kulturgüter bei bewaffneten Konflikten 57(1974).
19. 249 U.N.T.S. 240; as to its legislative history see K.-H. Buhse, Der Schutz von Kulturgut im Krieg 50 (1959); E. Lattmann, Der Schutz der Kulturgüter bei bewaffneten Konflikten 57(1974).
20. 249 U.N.T.S. 358.
21. 75 U.N.T.S. 287.
22. 1125 U.N.T.S. 3.
23. 1125 U.N.T.S. 609.
24. 38 I.L.M. 769 (1999).
25. UN Doc. S/25704 of 3 May 1993, at 36-40; reprinted in 32 l.L.M. 1192 (1993).
26. 37 I.L.M. 999 (1998).
27. Art. 23(g) of the 1907 Hague Regulations provides that it is prohibited: "To destroy or seize the enemy's property, unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of war".
28. Art. 28 of the 1907 Hague Regulations.
29. Art. 27 of the 1907 Hague Regulations reads: In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be taken to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals, and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not being used at the time for military purposes. It is the duty of the besieged to indicate the presence of such buildings or places by distinctive and visible signs, which shall be notified to the enemy beforehand.
30. Art. 5 of the 1907 Hague Convention No. IX.
31. Art. 56 of the 1907 Hague Regulations.
32. According to art. 35 of the ILC Declaration on State Responsibility, "A State responsible for an internationally wrongful act is under an obligation to make restitution, that is, to reestablish the situation which existed before the wrongful act was committed, provided and to the extent that restitution: (a) is not materially impossible; (b) does not involve a burden out of all proportion to the benefit deriving from restitution instead of compensation". See commentary of J. Crawford, The International Law Commission's Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and Commentaries 213 (2002).
33. Art. 4(3) of the 1954 Hague Convention provides: The High Contracting Parties further undertake to prohibit, prevent and, if necessary, put a stop to any form of theft, pillage and misappropriation of, and any acts of vandalism directed against, cultural property. They shall refrain from requisitioning movable cultural property situated in the territory of another High Contracting Party.
34. As to its legislative history see J.-M. Henckaerts, "New Rules for the Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflicts", 81 Rev. Int'le de la Croix Rouge 593, at 594 (1999).
35. The term is used in Additional Protocol I with a broader meaning so as to cover war of liberation, too.
36. As to the definition of the notion of "non-international conflict" see "Article I, Protocol II", in New Rules for Victims of Armed Conflicts: Commentary on the Two 1977 Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, para. 2.8 (M. Bothe, K.J. Partsch & W.A. Solf eds., 1982).
37. Art. 53(a) and Art. 85(4)(d) of Protocol I; or Art. 16 of Protocol II.
38. See the declaratory explanations of Canada, Federal Republic of Germany, United Kingdom, and USA, annexed to CDDH/SR. 42, VI Official Records 224 to 241.
39. UNESCO has subsequently developed several other international agreements and has adopted several Recommendations providing for a different definition of the notion of cultural property.
40. See on this R.O'Keffe, "The Meaning of 'Cultural Proterty' under the 1954 Hague Convention", 46 Netherlands Int'l L. Rev. 26, at 36 (1999).
41. Art. 8 of the 1954 Hague Convention provides as follows: 1. There may be placed under special protection a limited number of refuges intended to shelter movable cultural property in the event of armed conflict, of centres containing monuments and other immovable cultural property of very great importance, provided that they: (a) are situated at an adequate distance from any large industrial centre or from any important military objective constituting a vulnerable point, such as, for example, an aerodrome, broadcasting station, establishment engaged upon work of national defence, a port or railway station of relative importance or a main line of communication; (b) are not used for military purposes.
42. Art. 1(a) of the 1954 Hague Convention.
43. Art. 8(6) of the 1954 Hague Convention.
44. See C.F. Wenger, "Article 53", in Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 639, 640 (ICRC, Y. Sandoz et al eds., 1987).
45. Art. 10 of the Second Hague Protocol.
46. In fact the Roerich Pact is limited to objects in "territories subject to the sovereignty of each of the signatory and acceding States" (Art. 2). This excludes territories under military occupation.
47. Art. 4(1) of the 1954 Hague Convention; Art. 5 of the Roerich Pact.
48. See the Preamble to the 1954 Hague Convention.
49. No waiver for cases of military necessity is contained in the Roerich Pact. This is remarkable in view of the active role of the United States delegation in favour of inserting such a clause in the 1954 Convention.
50. A different justification is given by V.A. Birov, "Prize or Plunder: The Pillage of Works of Art and the International Law of War", 30 N. Y. U. J. Int'l L & Pol. 201, 234 (1997-98), who argues that there was no military necessity to attack the airplane; critical about the military necessity test J.H. Merryman, "Two Ways of Thinking about Cultural Property", 80 Am. J. Int'l L. 831, 838-40 (1986).
51. A different justification is given by V.A. Birov, "Prize or Plunder: The Pillage of Works of Art and the International Law of War", 30 N. Y. U. J. Int'l L & Pol. 201, 234 (1997-98), who argues that there was no military necessity to attack the airplane; critical about the military necessity test J.H. Merryman, "Two Ways of Thinking about Cultural Property", 80 Am. J. Int'l L. 831, 838-40 (1986).
52. Art. 6(b) of the Second Hague Protocol.
53. Art. 23(g) of the 1907 Hague Regulations; on the notion of military necessity see, in particular Y. Dinstein, "Military Necessity", in 3 Encyclopedia of Public International Law 395 (R. Bernhardt ed., 1991); N.H.C. Dunbar, "Military Necessity in War Crimes Trials", 29 Brit. Y.B. Int'l L. 442 (1952); E. Rauch, "Le Concept de Nécessité Militaire Dans le Droit de la Guerre", Revue de Droit Pénal Militaire et le Droit de la Guerre 205 (1980); it has been argued that an aggressor can never invoke military necessity, R.J. Zedalis, "Military Necessity and Iraqi Destruction of Kuwait Oil", 23 Rev. Beige 333 (1990).
54. Art. 23(g) of the 1907 Hague Regulations; on the notion of military necessity see, in particular Y. Dinstein, "Military Necessity", in 3 Encyclopedia of Public International Law 395 (R. Bernhardt ed., 1991); N.H.C. Dunbar, "Military Necessity in War Crimes Trials", 29 Brit. Y.B. Int'l L. 442 (1952); E. Rauch, "Le Concept de Nécessité Militaire Dans le Droit de la Guerre", Revue de Droit Pénal Militaire et le Droit de la Guerre 205 (1980); it has been argued that an aggressor can never invoke military necessity, R.J. Zedalis, "Military Necessity and Iraqi Destruction of Kuwait Oil", 23 Rev. Beige 333 (1990).
55. Art. 23(g) of the 1907 Hague Regulations; on the notion of military necessity see, in particular Y. Dinstein, "Military Necessity", in 3 Encyclopedia of Public International Law 395 (R. Bernhardt ed., 1991); N.H.C. Dunbar, "Military Necessity in War Crimes Trials", 29 Brit. Y.B. Int'l L. 442 (1952); E. Rauch, "Le Concept de Nécessité Militaire Dans le Droit de la Guerre", Revue de Droit Pénal Militaire et le Droit de la Guerre 205 (1980); it has been argued that an aggressor can never invoke military necessity, R.J. Zedalis, "Military Necessity and Iraqi Destruction of Kuwait Oil", 23 Rev. Beige 333 (1990).
56. Art. 23(g) of the 1907 Hague Regulations; on the notion of military necessity see, in particular Y. Dinstein, "Military Necessity", in 3 Encyclopedia of Public International Law 395 (R. Bernhardt ed., 1991); N.H.C. Dunbar, "Military Necessity in War Crimes Trials", 29 Brit. Y.B. Int'l L. 442 (1952); E. Rauch, "Le Concept de Nécessité Militaire Dans le Droit de la Guerre", Revue de Droit Pénal Militaire et le Droit de la Guerre 205 (1980); it has been argued that an aggressor can never invoke military necessity, R.J. Zedalis, "Military Necessity and Iraqi Destruction of Kuwait Oil", 23 Rev. Beige 333 (1990).
57. W.A. Solf, "Cultural Property, Protection in Armed Conflict", 4 Encyclopedia of Public International Law 892, 896 (R. Bernhardt ed., 1992).
58. See, for example, Art. 13 of Additional Protocol I.
59. Art. 5(1) of the 1954 Hague Convention.
60. Art. 5(2) of the 1954 Hague Convention.
61. Sec. I, para. 3 of the First Hague Protocol.
62. Sec. I, para. 4 of the First Hague Protocol.
63. Sec. II, para. 5 of the First Hague Protocol.
64. Art. 28 of the 1954 Hague Convention.
65. Art. 18(b) of the Regulations for Execution.
66. Art. 19 of the Regulations for Execution.
67. These are services or specialised personnel of the armed forces already organised in times of peace (Art. 7(2) of the 1954 Hague Convention); representatives appointed after the beginning of an armed conflict for cultural property, including also for occupied territories (Art. 2(a) of the Regulations for Execution).
68. These are the delegates appointed by Protecting Powers (Art. 3 of the Regulations for Execution); experts employed by those delegates with the state in which cultural property is situated (Art. 7(2)); personnel of neutral States fulfilling the functions of Protecting Power (Art. 9).
69. These are the Commissioner-General for Cultural Property appointed by the Director General of UNESCO (Arts. 2-10 of the Regulations for Execution); inspectors of cultural property (Art. 7(1) and Art. 9 (second sentence) of the Regulations for Execution); experts engaged by the Commissioner General (Art. 7(2) of the Regulations for Execution).
70. Art. 17(2)(b) and (c) of the 1954 Hague Convention; Art. 21(1) and (2) of the Regulations for Execution.
71. Blaskic Trial Judgement, No. IT-95-14T, para. 185.
72. Art. 27 of the 1907 Hague Regulations.