WAR CRIMES COMMITTED IN NON-INTERNATIONAL ARMED CONFLICT AND THE EMERGING SYSTEM OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE

Israel Yearbook on Human Rights

Volumn 30, Issue , 2000, Pages 103-177

  Kress, Claus ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLOGNE   (Germany)

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EID: 85174906737     PISSN: 03335925     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1163/9789004423145_006     Document Type: Chapter

References (151)

1. U.N. Doc. NCONF. 183/9, 17 July 1998, 37 I.L.M. 999 (1998);
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3. U.N. Doc. PCNICC/2000/INF/3/Add. 2, 6 July 2000;
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5. See e.g., D. Plattner, "The Penal Repression of Violations of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Non-International Armed Conflicts", 72 Int'l Rev. Red Cross 409 (1990);
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25. L. Condorelli, "La Cour Penale Internationale: un Pas de Geant (pourvu qu'i! soit accompli...)", 103 R.G.D.I.P. 7, 11 (1999).
26. This has been recognized by the important "Symposium on Method in International Law", 93 Am. J. Int'l L. 291-423 (1999).
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36. D. Fleck, "The Role of Individuals in International Humanitarian Law and Challenges for States in its Developments", in The Law of Armed Conflict into the Next Millenium 123-25
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38. See L. Condorelli & L. Boisson de Chazournes, "Quelques Remarques it Propos de I'Obligation des Etats de 'Respecter et Faire Rspecter' Ie Droit International Humanitaire 'en Toutes Circonstances"', in Etudes et Essais sur Ie Droit International Humanitaire et sur les Principes de la Croix-Rouge en l' Honneur de Jean Pictet 29 (c. Swinarski, ed., 1984).
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45. C. Kress, "L'Organe de Facto an Droit International Public. Reflexions sur I'Imputabilite il I'Etat de I' Acte de I'Individu il la Lumiere des Developpements Jurisprudentiels et Doctrinaux Recents", 105 R.G.D.I.P. 93 (2001)
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49. ICRC, La Convention de Geneve relative a la protection des personnes civiles en temps de guerre 40 et seq (1956);
50. D. Schindler, "The Different Types of Armed Conflicts according to the Geneva Conventions and Protocols", 163 R.A.D.l. 147 (1979).
51. Prosecutor v. Clement Kayishema and Obed Ruzindana, ICTR 95-I-T, 21 May 1999, par. 595.
52. H. Spieker, "The International Criminal Court and Non-International Armed Conflicts", 13 Leiden J. Int'l L. 415 et seq. (2000).
53. C. Stahn, "Internationaler Menschenrechtsschutz und VOikerstrafrecht", [1999] Kritische Justiz 343 et seq.;
54. C. Safferling, "The Justification of Punishment in International Criminal Law", 4 Austrian Rev. Int'l & European L. 149 (1999).
55. B. Bing Jia, "The Differing Concepts of War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity in International Criminal Law", in The Reality of International Law. Essays in Honour of Ian Brownlie 268 (G.S. Goodwin-Gill & S. Talmon eds., 1999)
56. Y. Dinstein, "Crimes against Humanity after Tadic", 13 Leiden J. Int'l L. 383 et seq. (2000).
57. W. Penrick, "Should Crimes Against Humanity Replace War Crimes?", 37 Colum. J. Transnat'l L. 767 (1999).
58. L.c. Green, "'Grave Breaches' or 'Crimes Against Humanity?"', 8 U.S. Air Force Academy 1. Legal Studies 19 (1997-98).
59. "Negotiating the Treaty of Rome on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court", 32 Cornell Int'l L. 462 (1999).
60. M. Sassoli & A.A. Bouvier, How Does Law Protect in War: Cases, Documents, and Teaching Materials on Contemporary Practice in International Humanitarian Law 202 (lCRC, 1999)
61. M.-C. Roberge, "La nouvelle Cour pen ale internationale: evaluation preliminaire", 80 Int. Rev. Red Cross 727 (1998)
62. H. Fischer, "The Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court for War Crimes: Some Observations concerning Differences between the Statute of the Court and War Crimes Provisions in Other Treaties", in Brucken bauen und begehen. Festschrift/ur K. Ipsen 89 (Y. Epping, H. Fischer, W. Heitschel & v. Heinegg, eds., 2000).
63. C. Rottensteiner, "The Denial of Humanitarian Assistance as a Crime Under International Law", 81 Int. Rev. Red Cross 555 (1999).
64. Judgment of 14 January 2000, IT-95-16-T, paras. 521 and 522.
65. P. Kirsch & J. Holmes, "The Rome Conference on an International Criminal Court: The Negotiating Process", 93 Am. J. Int'l L. 7 (1999).
66. M. Politi, "Le Statut de Rome de la Cour Penale Internationale: Ie Point de Vue d'un Negociateur", 103 R.G.D.I.P. 834 (1999)
67. For a recent effort to delineate the scope of application of the diverse war crimes against property interests under the ICTY Statute, see para. 347 of the ICTY judgment in the Kordic & Cerkez case (supra note 119).
68. See, e.g., H. Lauterpacht, "The Law of Nations and the Punishment of War Crimes", 21 Brit. y.B. Int'l L. 79 (1944).
69. On the significance of this term, see L. Condorelli, "Le Tribunal Penal International pour I'Ex-Yugoslavie et sa Jurisprudence", I Cursos Euromeditemineos 250 (1997).
70. L. Condorelli, "Conclusions Generales", in Les Nations Unies, supra note 7, at 455-57.
71. R. S. Lee, The International Criminal Court. The Making of the Rome Statute 189 (1999).
72. W. Schabas, "General Principles of Criminal Law in the International Criminal Court Statute", 6 Eur. J. of Crime Criminal L. and Criminal Justice 400 (1998);
73. K. Ambos, "General Principles in the Rome Statute", 10 Criminal Law Forum I (1999);
74. Y. Dinstein, "Defences", I Substantive and Procedural Aspects of International Criminal Law: Commentary 371 (G. K. McDonald & O. Swaak-Goldman, eds., 2000), hereinafter: International Criminal Law.
75. See generally K. Ambos, "Individual Criminal Responsibility in International Criminal Law: A Jurisprudential Analysis - From Nuremberg to the Hague", in International Criminal Law, supra note ISS, at 3;
76. C. Nill-Theobald, "Defences" bei Kriegsverbrechen am Beispiel Deutschlands und der USA (1998);
77. M. Lippman, "Conundrums of Armed Conflict: Criminal Defenses to Violations of the Humanitarian Law of War", 15 Dick. J. Intl L. 1 (1996);
78. C. Kress, "Zur Methode der Rechtsfindung im Allgemeinen Teil des VOlkerstrafrechts", III ZStW 597 (1999);
79. A. Eser, "The Need for a General Part", in Commentaries on the International Law Commission's 1991 Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind 43 (M.e. Bassiouni, ed., 1993)
80. M.E. Bassiouni & C. Blakesley, "The Need for a General Part", 25 Vand. 1. Transnt'l L. 15 (1992).
81. C. Elliott, "The French Law of Intent and its Influence on the Development of International Criminal Law", 11 Crim. L.F. 45 (2000).
82. B. Bing Jia, "The Doctrine of Command Responsibility in International Law", 45 Neth. Int'f L. Rev. 325 (1998).
83. I. Bantekas, "The Contemporary Law of Superior Responsibility", 93 Am. J. Int'f L. 577 (1999)
84. See J. Vogel, "Elemente der Straftat: Bemerkungen zur franzosichen Straftatlehre und zur Straftatlehre des common law", 145 Goltdammer's Archiv fur Strafrecht 138 (1998).
85. T. Weigend, "Zur Frage eines 'internationalen' Allgemeinen Teils", 1391 Festschrift fur Claus Roxin zum 70 Geburtstag am 15 Mai 2001 (B. Schtinemann et al., eds., 2001).
86. Corpus Juris der strafrechtlichen Regelungen zum Schutz der finanziellen Interessen der Europdischen Union 128 (M. Delmas-Marty ed., 1998).
87. P. Gaeta, "The Defence of Superior Orders: The Statute of the International Criminal Court versus Customary International Law", JO Eur. J. Int'l L. 172 (1999).
88. A. Andries, E. David, C. Van den Wyngaert & J. Verhaegen "Incitation au Crime", La Libre Belgique, 15 April 1999, at II.
89. C. Greenwood, "The Twilight of the Law of Belligerent Reprisals", 20 Neth. Y.B. Int'l L. 35, 68 (1989).
90. F. Kalshoven, "Belligerent Reprisals Revisited", 21 Neth. Y.B. Int'l L. 75 (1990).
91. C. Greenwood, "Belligerent Reprisals in the Jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", in Prosecution of Crimes, supra note 2, at 554.
92. the ICRC's Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 1372-73 (1987).
93. T. Meron, "The Martens Clause, Principles of Humanity, and Dictates of Public Conscience", 94 Am. J. Int'l L. 88 (2000).
94. P.-M. Dupuy, "Crimes et Immunites", 103 R.G.D.P. 289 (1999).
95. A. Watts, "The Legal Position in International Law of Heads of States, Heads of Governments and Foreign Ministers", 247 R.A.D.!. 9, 84 (1994/ III).
96. The Pinochet Papers: The Case of Augusto Pinochet in Spain and England (R. Brody & S. Ratner, eds., 2000);
97. H. Ahlbrecht & K. Ambos, Der Fall Pinochet(s) - Auslieferung wegen staatsverstiirkter Kriminalitiit? (1999);
98. for analyses, see R. Bank, "Der Fall Pinochet: Aufbruch zu neuen Ufern bei der Verfolgung von Menschenrechtsverletzungen", 59 ZiioR. V. 677 (1999);
99. A. Bianchi, "Immunity versus Human Rights: The Pinochet Case", 10 Eur. J. Int'l. 237 (1999);
100. M. Byers, "The Law and Politis of the Pinochet Case", 10 Duke J. Compo & Int'l. 415 (2000);
101. M. Cosnard, "Quelques Observations sur les Decisions de la Chambre des Lords du 25 Novembre 1998 et du 24 Mars 1999 dans I'Affaire Pinochet", 103 R.G.D.I.P. 309 et seq. (1999);
102. c. Dominice, "Quelques Observations sur I'Immunite de Jurisdiction Penale de I' Ancien Chef d'Etat", 103 R.G.D.l.P. 297 (1999).
103. Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 1984, 23 I.L.M. 1027;
104. U.N. Doc. NCN.4/L.576, 57-58 (paras. 11-12).
105. Lord Browne-Wilkinson, supra note 217, at 100;
106. Lord Hutton, supra note 217, at 153;
107. Lord Millet, ibid., 170;
108. Lord Phillips, ibid., 180.
109. Lord Brown-Wilkinson (supra note 217, at 114)
110. K. Prost & A. Schlunck, in Commentary on the Rome Statute, supra note 45, art. 98, n. I;
111. H.P. Kaul & C. Kress, "Jurisdiction and Cooperation in the ICC Statute: Principles and Compromises", 2 Y.B. Int'l Humanit. L. 143, 164-65 (1998).
112. B. Broomhail, in: Association International de Droit Penal, ICC Ratification and National Implementing Legislation 137 (M.C. Bassiouni, ed., 1999).
113. A. Schlunck, Amnesty versus Accountability (2000);
114. K Ambos, "Impunity and International Criminal Law", 18 Hum. Rts. L.J. 1 (1997)
115. M.P. Scharf, "Swapping Amnesty for Peace: Was there a Duty to Prosecute International Crimes in Haiti", 31 Tex. Int'l L.l. I (1996);
116. State Responsibility to Investigate and Prosecute Grave Human Rights Violations in International Law (N. Roht Ariaza, ed., 1995);
117. C. Edelenbos, "Human Rights Violations: a Duty to Prosecute?", 7 Leiden J. Int'l L. 5 (1994);
118. J. Kokott, "No impunity for Human Rights Violations in the Americas", 15 Hum. Rts. L.l. 153 (1993);
119. D. Orentlicher, "Settling Accounts: the Duty to Prosecute Human Rights Violations of a Prior Regime", 100 Yale L.l. 2537 (1991).
120. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1949, 78 U.N. T. S. 277.
121. L.A. Steven, "Genocide and the Duty to Extradite or Prosecute: Why the United States is in Breach of Its International Obligations", 39 Va. J. Int'l L. 425 (1999).
122. M. Plachta, "(Non-)Extradition of Nationals: A Neverending Story", 13 Emory Int'l L. Rev. 126 (1999);
123. B. Simma, "International Human Rights Law and General International Law: a Comparative Analysis", 2 Collected Courses of the Academy of European Law 225 (1995/1V);
124. T.N. Slade & R.S. Clark, "Preamble and Final Clauses", in: Lee, supra note ISS, at 427.
125. "Dealing With Crimes of a Past Regime. Is Amnesty still an Option?", 12 Leiden J. Int'l L. 1004 (1999)).
126. Federation Nationale des Deportes et Internes Resistants et Patriotes et al. v. Barbie, 78 I.L.R. 135 (1984).
127. S. Marchesi, "The Priebke Case before the Italian Military Tribunals: a Reaffirmation of the Principle of Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity", 1 Y.B. Int'l Humanit. L. 352 (1998);
128. Cj. above all the decision of the Constitutional Court of South Africa in Azapo v President of the Republic of South Africa, Case CCT 17/96, 25 July 1996, paras. 30-31
129. J. Dugard, "Is the Truth and Reconciliation Process Compatible with International Law? An Unanswered Question", 13 S. Afr. J. Hum. Rts. 265 (1997).
130. A. McDonald, "Sierra Leone's Uneasy Peace: The Amnesties Granted in the Lome Agreement and the United Nations's Dilemma", 13 Humanitiires Volkerrecht 19 (2000).
131. Ruling No. C-225/95 L.A.T.-040, para. 42;
132. U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/L.600, 11 August 2000, 6-7, as a circumstance precluding wrongfulness;
133. For helpful overviews, see J. Dugard, "South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Process and International Humanitarian Law", 2 Y.B. Int'l Humanit. L. 254 (1999);
134. G. Werle, "Neue Wege. Die stidafrikanische Wahrheitskommission und die Aufarbeitung von schweren Menschenrechtsverletzungen", in Umkampfte Vergangenheit 269 (P. Bock & E. Wolfrum eds., 1999).
135. This view is shared by most commentators: see J. Dugard, supra note 239;
136. K. Amel, "Truth Reconciliation and Justice: The South African Experience in Perspective", 63 Mil. L. Rev. 1 (2000);
137. R. J. Goldstone, "Past Human Rights Violations: Truth Commissions and Amnesties or Prosecutions", 51 N. Ire. Legal Q. 164 (2000);
138. G. Filibeck, "Restoring a just order in post-conflict situations in the light of the social teachings of the Catholic Church", 80 Int'l Rev. Red Cross 75 (1998).
139. See C. Braude & D. Spitz, 13 S. Afr. 1. Hum. Rts. 273 (1997);
140. See e.g., K. C. Randall, "Universallurisdiction under International Law", 66 Tex. L. Rev. 800 (1988);
141. R. Merkel, "UniversaIe lurisdiktion bei volkerrechtlichen Verbrechen", in Aufgekliirte Kriminalpolitik oder Kampf gegen das Bose?, (Band III: Makrodelinquenz) 237 (K. Ltiderssen ed., 1998);
142. A. Zimmermann, 'The Creation of a Permanent International Criminal Court", 2 Max Planck Y.B. u.N. L. 206 (1998);
143. S. Ratner, "The Schizophrenias of International Criminal Law", 33 Tex. Int'l L.1. 254-55 (1998);
144. Aceves, "Liberalism and International Legal Scholarship: The Pinochet Case and the Move Toward a Universal System of Transnational Litigation", 41 Harv. Int'l L.J. 153 (2000);
145. M. Cottier, "The Case of Switzerland", I The Rome Statute and Domestic Legal Orders (General Aspects and Constitutional Issues) 224 (C. Kress & F. Lattanzi eds., 2000);
146. 79 Rev. de Droit penal et de Criminologie 299 (para. 18) (1999).
147. L. Boisson de Chazournes & L. Condorelli, "Common Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions Revisited: Protecting Collective Interests", 82Int'l Rev. Red Cross 77 (2000).
148. Bundesblatt (Official Journal) 5327, 5349 (1999).
149. Decision of the Criminal Division of the Spanish National Court (Sala de 10 Penal de la Audiencia Nacional Espanola) disposing to shelve the proceedings regarding the case of Guatemala. Madrid, 13 December 2000 (Plenary Session, Appeal Record 115/2000 on the Preliminary Proceedings 331/99, Central Trial Court No.1);
150. M. Cottier, "Structuring the Exercise of Universal and Territorial Jurisdiction - The Decision of 13 December 2000 of the Spanish National Court Shelving the Proceedings Against Guatemalans Accused of Genocide", in Prosecution of Crimes, supra note 2, at 843.
151. P. Benvenuti, "Complementarity of the International Criminal Court to National Criminal Jurisdictions", in I Essays on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 21 (F. Lattanzi & W. Schabas eds., 2000).