TRIPS, cultural politics and law reform

Prometheus: Critical Studies in Innovation

Volumn 16, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 291-303

  Sutherland, Johanna ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Access and benefit sharing; Cultural politics; Genetic resources; Intellectual property; Liberalism

Indexed keywords

BIOTECHNOLOGY RESOURCES;

CULTURAL RELATIONS; INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS; INTERNATIONAL TRADE; LIBERALISM; POLITICAL PARTICIPATION; TRADE RELATIONS;

EID: 85169767302     PISSN: 08109028     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/08109029808629283     Document Type: Article

References (78)

1. J. L. Richardson, 'Contending liberalisms: past and present', European Journal of International Relations, 3, 1, pp. 5-33.
2. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade - multilateral trade negotiations (the Uruguay Round): final act embodying the results of the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations, December 15, 1993' with introduction by A. Porges, International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 1-152. The Uruguay Round Agreements came into force from 1 January 1995. See also: 'The Agreement establishing the Multilateral Trade Organization [World Trade Organization]', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 13-27; 'Agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights, including trade in counterfeit goods', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 81-111; 'Understanding on rules and procedures governing the settlement of disputes', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 112-135.
3. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade - multilateral trade negotiations (the Uruguay Round): final act embodying the results of the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations, December 15, 1993' with introduction by A. Porges, International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 1-152. The Uruguay Round Agreements came into force from 1 January 1995. See also: 'The Agreement establishing the Multilateral Trade Organization [World Trade Organization]', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 13-27; 'Agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights, including trade in counterfeit goods', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 81-111; 'Understanding on rules and procedures governing the settlement of disputes', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 112-135.
4. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade - multilateral trade negotiations (the Uruguay Round): final act embodying the results of the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations, December 15, 1993' with introduction by A. Porges, International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 1-152. The Uruguay Round Agreements came into force from 1 January 1995. See also: 'The Agreement establishing the Multilateral Trade Organization [World Trade Organization]', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 13-27; 'Agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights, including trade in counterfeit goods', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 81-111; 'Understanding on rules and procedures governing the settlement of disputes', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 112-135.
5. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade - multilateral trade negotiations (the Uruguay Round): final act embodying the results of the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations, December 15, 1993' with introduction by A. Porges, International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 1-152. The Uruguay Round Agreements came into force from 1 January 1995. See also: 'The Agreement establishing the Multilateral Trade Organization [World Trade Organization]', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 13-27; 'Agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights, including trade in counterfeit goods', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 81-111; 'Understanding on rules and procedures governing the settlement of disputes', International Legal Materials, 33, 1, 1994, pp. 112-135.
6. In 1995 the FAO Conference endorsed a broadening of the mandate of the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources to cover all components of biodiversity of relevance for food and agriculture, and agreed that the Commission should become known officially as the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. This broadened mandate brings within the Commission's aegis domesticated animals and marine and aquatic resources.
7. Plant genetic resources are plant components which contain functional units of heredity of actual or potential value and which determine the range of genetic variability which is available to a plant population. Plant genes, which are found in all plant cells or seed, are sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which provide a code for one or more traits or functions for the cells expressing the gene(s). A 'plant' includes any part of the flowers, seeds, or genetic or reproductive material of a flowering plant, cycad, conifer, fern or fern ally, moss, liverwort, alga, fungus, or lichen.
8. See generally: Pat Roy Mooney, Seeds of the Earth: A Private or Public Resource, rev. edn, Inter Pares, Ottawa, for the Canadian Council for International Co-operation and the International Coalition for Development Action (London), 1980; Pat Roy Mooney, 'The law of the seed: another development and plant genetic resources', Development Dialogue, 1-2, 1983, pp. 3-172; Jack Ralph Kloppenburg Jr., First the Seed: The Political Economy of Plant Biotechnology, 1492-2000, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988; Jack R. Kloppenburg Jr. (ed), Seeds and Sovereignty: The Use and Control of Plant Genetic Resources, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 1988; Cary Fowler, Unnatural Selection: Technology, Politics, and Plant Evolution, International Studies in Global Change 6, Gordon and Breach, Yverdon, 1994; Darrell A. Posey & Graham Dutfield, Beyond Intellectual Property: Toward Traditional Resource Rights for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, 1996; Rural Advancement Foundation International, Conserving Indigenous Knowledge. Integrating Two Systems of Innovation, United Nations Development Programme, New York, 1995; Vandana Shiva, Afsar H. Jafri, Gitanjali Bedi, Radba Holla-Bhar, The Enclosure and Recovery of the Commons: Biodiversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights, Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology, New Delhi, 1997.
9. See generally: Pat Roy Mooney, Seeds of the Earth: A Private or Public Resource, rev. edn, Inter Pares, Ottawa, for the Canadian Council for International Co-operation and the International Coalition for Development Action (London), 1980; Pat Roy Mooney, 'The law of the seed: another development and plant genetic resources', Development Dialogue, 1-2, 1983, pp. 3-172; Jack Ralph Kloppenburg Jr., First the Seed: The Political Economy of Plant Biotechnology, 1492-2000, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988; Jack R. Kloppenburg Jr. (ed), Seeds and Sovereignty: The Use and Control of Plant Genetic Resources, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 1988; Cary Fowler, Unnatural Selection: Technology, Politics, and Plant Evolution, International Studies in Global Change 6, Gordon and Breach, Yverdon, 1994; Darrell A. Posey & Graham Dutfield, Beyond Intellectual Property: Toward Traditional Resource Rights for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, 1996; Rural Advancement Foundation International, Conserving Indigenous Knowledge. Integrating Two Systems of Innovation, United Nations Development Programme, New York, 1995; Vandana Shiva, Afsar H. Jafri, Gitanjali Bedi, Radba Holla-Bhar, The Enclosure and Recovery of the Commons: Biodiversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights, Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology, New Delhi, 1997.
10. See generally: Pat Roy Mooney, Seeds of the Earth: A Private or Public Resource, rev. edn, Inter Pares, Ottawa, for the Canadian Council for International Co-operation and the International Coalition for Development Action (London), 1980; Pat Roy Mooney, 'The law of the seed: another development and plant genetic resources', Development Dialogue, 1-2, 1983, pp. 3-172; Jack Ralph Kloppenburg Jr., First the Seed: The Political Economy of Plant Biotechnology, 1492-2000, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988; Jack R. Kloppenburg Jr. (ed), Seeds and Sovereignty: The Use and Control of Plant Genetic Resources, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 1988; Cary Fowler, Unnatural Selection: Technology, Politics, and Plant Evolution, International Studies in Global Change 6, Gordon and Breach, Yverdon, 1994; Darrell A. Posey & Graham Dutfield, Beyond Intellectual Property: Toward Traditional Resource Rights for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, 1996; Rural Advancement Foundation International, Conserving Indigenous Knowledge. Integrating Two Systems of Innovation, United Nations Development Programme, New York, 1995; Vandana Shiva, Afsar H. Jafri, Gitanjali Bedi, Radba Holla-Bhar, The Enclosure and Recovery of the Commons: Biodiversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights, Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology, New Delhi, 1997.
11. See generally: Pat Roy Mooney, Seeds of the Earth: A Private or Public Resource, rev. edn, Inter Pares, Ottawa, for the Canadian Council for International Co-operation and the International Coalition for Development Action (London), 1980; Pat Roy Mooney, 'The law of the seed: another development and plant genetic resources', Development Dialogue, 1-2, 1983, pp. 3-172; Jack Ralph Kloppenburg Jr., First the Seed: The Political Economy of Plant Biotechnology, 1492-2000, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988; Jack R. Kloppenburg Jr. (ed), Seeds and Sovereignty: The Use and Control of Plant Genetic Resources, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 1988; Cary Fowler, Unnatural Selection: Technology, Politics, and Plant Evolution, International Studies in Global Change 6, Gordon and Breach, Yverdon, 1994; Darrell A. Posey & Graham Dutfield, Beyond Intellectual Property: Toward Traditional Resource Rights for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, 1996; Rural Advancement Foundation International, Conserving Indigenous Knowledge. Integrating Two Systems of Innovation, United Nations Development Programme, New York, 1995; Vandana Shiva, Afsar H. Jafri, Gitanjali Bedi, Radba Holla-Bhar, The Enclosure and Recovery of the Commons: Biodiversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights, Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology, New Delhi, 1997.
12. See generally: Pat Roy Mooney, Seeds of the Earth: A Private or Public Resource, rev. edn, Inter Pares, Ottawa, for the Canadian Council for International Co-operation and the International Coalition for Development Action (London), 1980; Pat Roy Mooney, 'The law of the seed: another development and plant genetic resources', Development Dialogue, 1-2, 1983, pp. 3-172; Jack Ralph Kloppenburg Jr., First the Seed: The Political Economy of Plant Biotechnology, 1492-2000, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988; Jack R. Kloppenburg Jr. (ed), Seeds and Sovereignty: The Use and Control of Plant Genetic Resources, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 1988; Cary Fowler, Unnatural Selection: Technology, Politics, and Plant Evolution, International Studies in Global Change 6, Gordon and Breach, Yverdon, 1994; Darrell A. Posey & Graham Dutfield, Beyond Intellectual Property: Toward Traditional Resource Rights for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, 1996; Rural Advancement Foundation International, Conserving Indigenous Knowledge. Integrating Two Systems of Innovation, United Nations Development Programme, New York, 1995; Vandana Shiva, Afsar H. Jafri, Gitanjali Bedi, Radba Holla-Bhar, The Enclosure and Recovery of the Commons: Biodiversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights, Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology, New Delhi, 1997.
13. See generally: Pat Roy Mooney, Seeds of the Earth: A Private or Public Resource, rev. edn, Inter Pares, Ottawa, for the Canadian Council for International Co-operation and the International Coalition for Development Action (London), 1980; Pat Roy Mooney, 'The law of the seed: another development and plant genetic resources', Development Dialogue, 1-2, 1983, pp. 3-172; Jack Ralph Kloppenburg Jr., First the Seed: The Political Economy of Plant Biotechnology, 1492-2000, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988; Jack R. Kloppenburg Jr. (ed), Seeds and Sovereignty: The Use and Control of Plant Genetic Resources, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 1988; Cary Fowler, Unnatural Selection: Technology, Politics, and Plant Evolution, International Studies in Global Change 6, Gordon and Breach, Yverdon, 1994; Darrell A. Posey & Graham Dutfield, Beyond Intellectual Property: Toward Traditional Resource Rights for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, 1996; Rural Advancement Foundation International, Conserving Indigenous Knowledge. Integrating Two Systems of Innovation, United Nations Development Programme, New York, 1995; Vandana Shiva, Afsar H. Jafri, Gitanjali Bedi, Radba Holla-Bhar, The Enclosure and Recovery of the Commons: Biodiversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights, Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology, New Delhi, 1997.
14. See generally: Pat Roy Mooney, Seeds of the Earth: A Private or Public Resource, rev. edn, Inter Pares, Ottawa, for the Canadian Council for International Co-operation and the International Coalition for Development Action (London), 1980; Pat Roy Mooney, 'The law of the seed: another development and plant genetic resources', Development Dialogue, 1-2, 1983, pp. 3-172; Jack Ralph Kloppenburg Jr., First the Seed: The Political Economy of Plant Biotechnology, 1492-2000, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988; Jack R. Kloppenburg Jr. (ed), Seeds and Sovereignty: The Use and Control of Plant Genetic Resources, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 1988; Cary Fowler, Unnatural Selection: Technology, Politics, and Plant Evolution, International Studies in Global Change 6, Gordon and Breach, Yverdon, 1994; Darrell A. Posey & Graham Dutfield, Beyond Intellectual Property: Toward Traditional Resource Rights for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, 1996; Rural Advancement Foundation International, Conserving Indigenous Knowledge. Integrating Two Systems of Innovation, United Nations Development Programme, New York, 1995; Vandana Shiva, Afsar H. Jafri, Gitanjali Bedi, Radba Holla-Bhar, The Enclosure and Recovery of the Commons: Biodiversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights, Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology, New Delhi, 1997.
15. See generally: Pat Roy Mooney, Seeds of the Earth: A Private or Public Resource, rev. edn, Inter Pares, Ottawa, for the Canadian Council for International Co-operation and the International Coalition for Development Action (London), 1980; Pat Roy Mooney, 'The law of the seed: another development and plant genetic resources', Development Dialogue, 1-2, 1983, pp. 3-172; Jack Ralph Kloppenburg Jr., First the Seed: The Political Economy of Plant Biotechnology, 1492-2000, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988; Jack R. Kloppenburg Jr. (ed), Seeds and Sovereignty: The Use and Control of Plant Genetic Resources, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 1988; Cary Fowler, Unnatural Selection: Technology, Politics, and Plant Evolution, International Studies in Global Change 6, Gordon and Breach, Yverdon, 1994; Darrell A. Posey & Graham Dutfield, Beyond Intellectual Property: Toward Traditional Resource Rights for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, 1996; Rural Advancement Foundation International, Conserving Indigenous Knowledge. Integrating Two Systems of Innovation, United Nations Development Programme, New York, 1995; Vandana Shiva, Afsar H. Jafri, Gitanjali Bedi, Radba Holla-Bhar, The Enclosure and Recovery of the Commons: Biodiversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights, Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology, New Delhi, 1997.
16. Especially Articles 1, 8(j), 15(4), 15(5), 16, 17, 18, 19(1) and (2), 20 and 21. See generally: United Nations, Convention on Biological Diversity, Addressing the Fair and Equitable Sharing of the Benefits Arising out of Genetic Resources: Options for Assistance to Developing Country Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity: Note by the Executive Secretary, Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Fourth Meeting, Bratislava, 4-15 May 1998, 9 February 1998, UNEP/CBD/COP/4/ 22.
17. Farmers' Rights and Plant Breeders' Rights were recognised in FAO Resolutions 4/89, 5/89 and 3/91. See generally: United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Commission on Plant Genetic Resources, Revision of the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources: Analysis of Some Technical, Economic and Legal Aspects for Consideration in Stage II: Access to Plant Genetic Resources and Farmers' Rights, CPGR-6/95/8 Suppl. (CPGR-EX1/94/5 Suppl.) E, 1995; United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Report of the Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Rome, 1-5 December 1997, CGRFA-Ex4/97/REPORT.
18. Farmers' Rights and Plant Breeders' Rights were recognised in FAO Resolutions 4/89, 5/89 and 3/91. See generally: United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Commission on Plant Genetic Resources, Revision of the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources: Analysis of Some Technical, Economic and Legal Aspects for Consideration in Stage II: Access to Plant Genetic Resources and Farmers' Rights, CPGR-6/95/8 Suppl. (CPGR-EX1/94/5 Suppl.) E, 1995; United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Report of the Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Rome, 1-5 December 1997, CGRFA-Ex4/97/REPORT.
19. For numerous earlier examples of alleged biopiracy, see N. Roht-Arriaza, 'Of seeds and shamans: the appropriation of the scientific and technical knowledge of indigenous and local communities', Michigan Journal of International Law, 17, 1996, pp. 919-965 at pp. 921-926.
20. Sui generis means new and unique or as yet unrecognised in the international order.
21. S. van de Wateringen, 'USA pushes Ecuador to sign IPR agreement', Biotechnology and Development Monitor, 33, December, 1997, pp. 20-22.
22. 'India bio-piracy campaign successfully challenges US turmeric patent', Intellectual Property and Biodiversity News, 6, 13, 1997, 〈env.biotech@conf.igc.apc.org〉
23. K. Lehman, 'Pirates of diversity: the global threat to the earth's seeds', Information About Intellectual Property Rights, 3, 1994, 〈ipr-info3@iatp.org〉
24. Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, rev. edn, Flamingo Paperbacks, London, 1983, pp. 90-91.
25. For a case study of the Philippines' experience see: United Nations, Convention on Biological Diversity, Manual on Regulating Access to Biological and Genetic Resources in the Philippines, Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Third Meeting, Buenos Aires Argentina, 4-15 November 1996, 6 November 1996, UNEP/CBD/COP/3/Inf.47. C. V. Barber & A. L. Vina, 'Regulating access to genetic resources: the Philippines experience', in, J. Mugabe, C. V. Barber, G. Henne, L. Glowka and A. La Viňa (eds), Access to Genetic Resources: Strategies for Sharing Benefits, ACTS Press, Nairobi, 1997, pp. 115-141.
26. For a case study of the Philippines' experience see: United Nations, Convention on Biological Diversity, Manual on Regulating Access to Biological and Genetic Resources in the Philippines, Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Third Meeting, Buenos Aires Argentina, 4-15 November 1996, 6 November 1996, UNEP/CBD/COP/3/Inf.47. C. V. Barber & A. L. Vina, 'Regulating access to genetic resources: the Philippines experience', in, J. Mugabe, C. V. Barber, G. Henne, L. Glowka and A. La Viňa (eds), Access to Genetic Resources: Strategies for Sharing Benefits, ACTS Press, Nairobi, 1997, pp. 115-141.
27. The original General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was agreed to on 30 October 1947, and came into effect in 1948.
28. K. Burch, 'Intellectual property rights and the culture of global liberalism', Science Communication, 17, 2, 1995, pp. 214-232.
29. M. A. Leaffer, 'Protecting United States intellectual property abroad: toward a new multilateralism', Iowa Law Review, 76, 1991, pp. 273-308 at p. 277.
30. Robert Gilpin, US Power and the Multinational Corporation: The Political Economy of Foreign Direct Investment, Basic Books, New York, 1975; Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1984; Robert Gilpin, The Political Economy of International Relations, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1987; Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, Random House, New York, 1980; Peter Drahos, 'Global property rights in information: the story of TRIPS at the GATT', Prometheus, 13, 1, at pp. 6-19.
31. Robert Gilpin, US Power and the Multinational Corporation: The Political Economy of Foreign Direct Investment, Basic Books, New York, 1975; Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1984; Robert Gilpin, The Political Economy of International Relations, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1987; Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, Random House, New York, 1980; Peter Drahos, 'Global property rights in information: the story of TRIPS at the GATT', Prometheus, 13, 1, at pp. 6-19.
32. Robert Gilpin, US Power and the Multinational Corporation: The Political Economy of Foreign Direct Investment, Basic Books, New York, 1975; Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1984; Robert Gilpin, The Political Economy of International Relations, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1987; Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, Random House, New York, 1980; Peter Drahos, 'Global property rights in information: the story of TRIPS at the GATT', Prometheus, 13, 1, at pp. 6-19.
33. Robert Gilpin, US Power and the Multinational Corporation: The Political Economy of Foreign Direct Investment, Basic Books, New York, 1975; Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1984; Robert Gilpin, The Political Economy of International Relations, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1987; Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, Random House, New York, 1980; Peter Drahos, 'Global property rights in information: the story of TRIPS at the GATT', Prometheus, 13, 1, at pp. 6-19.
34. Robert Gilpin, US Power and the Multinational Corporation: The Political Economy of Foreign Direct Investment, Basic Books, New York, 1975; Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1984; Robert Gilpin, The Political Economy of International Relations, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1987; Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, Random House, New York, 1980; Peter Drahos, 'Global property rights in information: the story of TRIPS at the GATT', Prometheus, 13, 1, at pp. 6-19.
35. Fowler, op. cit., Ref. 5, p. 177.
36. See D. Purdue, 'Hegemonic trips: world trade, intellectual property and biodiversity', Environmental Politics, 4, 1, 1995, pp. 88-107 at p. 96. Most of the 164 companies in the US which responded to a Conference Board survey in the late 1980s said that IPR reform was high on their lobbying agenda: Fowler, op. cit., Ref. 5, p. 176.
37. See D. Purdue, 'Hegemonic trips: world trade, intellectual property and biodiversity', Environmental Politics, 4, 1, 1995, pp. 88-107 at p. 96. Most of the 164 companies in the US which responded to a Conference Board survey in the late 1980s said that IPR reform was high on their lobbying agenda: Fowler, op. cit., Ref. 5, p. 176.
38. Drahos, op. cit., Ref. 18 at p. 8.
39. Intellectual Property Committee (USA), Keidanren (Japan), UNICE (Europe), 'Basic framework of GATT provisions on intellectual property: statement of views of the European, Japanese and United States Business Communities', IPC/Keidanren/UNICE, 1988 , typescript copy.
40. Drahos, op. cit., Ref. 18 at pp. 12-13.
41. J. van Wijk, 'Intellectual property protection for plants: possible impact on developing countries', Biotechnology and Development Monitor, 4, September, 1990, pp. 3-7 at p.6.
42. Intellectual Property Committee (USA), Keidanren (Japan), UNICE (Europe), op. cit., Ref. 22, pp. 17, 35-36.
43. On US domestic and bilateral law, see Leaffer, op. cit., Ref. 17 at pp. 288-297.
44. R. Kaplinksy, 'Industrial and intellectual property rights in the Uruguay round and beyond', Journal of Development Studies, 25, 3, 1989, pp. 373-400 at p. 391.
45. Acharya, 'Patenting of biotechnology: GATT and the erosion of the world's biodiversity', Journal of World Trade, 25, 6, pp. 71-87.
46. See for example, Harvard College's Onco-mouse Application [1989] OJ EPO 451.
47. United Nations, World Trade Organisation, Committee on Trade and Environment, Environment and TRIPS, 8 June 1995, WT/CTE/W/8, pp. 23-28.
48. Dan Leskien & Michael Flitner, Intellectual Property Rights and Plant Genetic Resources: Options for a Sui Generis System, Issues in Genetic Resources 6, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, 1997, pp. 28, 30-32
49. James Tully, Strange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1995.
50. Darrell Posey, Traditional Resource Rights: International Instruments for Protection and Compensation for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, IUCN, Gland, 1996; Posey & Dutfield, op. cit., Ref. 5.
51. Darrell Posey, Traditional Resource Rights: International Instruments for Protection and Compensation for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, IUCN, Gland, 1996; Posey & Dutfield, op. cit., Ref. 5.
52. A. R. Chapman, 'Human rights implications of indigenous peoples' intellectual property rights', in T. Greaves (ed.), Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples, A Sourcebook, Society for Applied Anthropology, Oklahoma City, 1994, pp. 209-222; D. B. Suagee, 'Human rights and cultural heritage, developments in the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations', in T. Greaves (ed.), Society for Applied Anthropology Oklahoma City 1994, Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples: A Sourcebook, pp. 191-208; D. Shelton, Fair Play, Fair Pay: Laws to Preserve Traditional Knowledge and Biological Resources, WWF, Gland, 1995.
53. A. R. Chapman, 'Human rights implications of indigenous peoples' intellectual property rights', in T. Greaves (ed.), Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples, A Sourcebook, Society for Applied Anthropology, Oklahoma City, 1994, pp. 209-222; D. B. Suagee, 'Human rights and cultural heritage, developments in the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations', in T. Greaves (ed.), Society for Applied Anthropology Oklahoma City 1994, Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples: A Sourcebook, pp. 191-208; D. Shelton, Fair Play, Fair Pay: Laws to Preserve Traditional Knowledge and Biological Resources, WWF, Gland, 1995.
54. A. R. Chapman, 'Human rights implications of indigenous peoples' intellectual property rights', in T. Greaves (ed.), Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples, A Sourcebook, Society for Applied Anthropology, Oklahoma City, 1994, pp. 209-222; D. B. Suagee, 'Human rights and cultural heritage, developments in the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations', in T. Greaves (ed.), Society for Applied Anthropology Oklahoma City 1994, Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples: A Sourcebook, pp. 191-208; D. Shelton, Fair Play, Fair Pay: Laws to Preserve Traditional Knowledge and Biological Resources, WWF, Gland, 1995.
55. Article 8(j) over Articles 17, 18.
56. See R. Pistorius, 'RAFI after 15 years', Biotechnology and Development Monitor, 17, December, 1993, p. 22; H. Shand, '1993: a landmark year for biodiversity or bio-piracy?', Biotechnology and Development Monitor, 17, December, 1993, p. 24 .
57. See R. Pistorius, 'RAFI after 15 years', Biotechnology and Development Monitor, 17, December, 1993, p. 22; H. Shand, '1993: a landmark year for biodiversity or bio-piracy?', Biotechnology and Development Monitor, 17, December, 1993, p. 24 .
58. B. Hoffmaster, 'The ethics of patenting higher life forms', Intellectual Property Journal, 4, 1988, pp. 1-24.
59. Roht-Arriaza, op. cit., Ref. 8 at pp. 935-940.
60. Roht-Arriaza, op. cit., Ref. 8 at pp. 940-942.
61. See generally: Rural Advancement Foundation International, op. cit., Ref. 5; Leskier & Flitner, op. cit., Ref. 31.
62. See generally: Rural Advancement Foundation International, op. cit., Ref. 5; Leskier & Flitner, op. cit., Ref. 31.
63. Formally the Commission of the Cartagena Accord, established by the 1969 Cartagena Agreement as a mechanism for social and economic integration amongst member countries. Before March 1996 it was known as the Andean Pact. Member States are Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela, but Peru announced its intention to withdraw from the agreement in April 1997: K. ten Kate, 'The common regime on access to genetic resources in the Andean Pact', Biopolicy Online Journal, 2, 6, 1997, File PY97006, 〈http://www.bdt.org.br/bioline/py〉.
64. See generally: M. Benavides, 'Amazon Indigenous peoples: new challenges for political participation and sustainable development', Cultural Survival Quarterly, 20, 3, pp. 50-53; K. Sikkink, 'Human rights, principled issue-networks, and sovereignty in Latin America', International Organisation, 47, 3, 1993, pp. 411-441; James Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law, Oxford University Press, New York, 1996; D. Lee van Cott, 'Prospects for self-determination of indigenous peoples in Latin America: questions of law and practice', Global Governance, 2, 1996, pp. 43-64. R. L. Barsh, 'Indigenous peoples in the 1990s: from object to subject of international law?', Harvard Human Rights Journal, 7, Spring, 1994, pp. 33-86 at pp. 70-72. Many States in the region have ratified ILO Convention 169 which obliges States to take special measures to safeguard the property, cultures and environment of indigenous and tribal peoples.
65. See generally: M. Benavides, 'Amazon Indigenous peoples: new challenges for political participation and sustainable development', Cultural Survival Quarterly, 20, 3, pp. 50-53; K. Sikkink, 'Human rights, principled issue-networks, and sovereignty in Latin America', International Organisation, 47, 3, 1993, pp. 411-441; James Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law, Oxford University Press, New York, 1996; D. Lee van Cott, 'Prospects for self-determination of indigenous peoples in Latin America: questions of law and practice', Global Governance, 2, 1996, pp. 43-64. R. L. Barsh, 'Indigenous peoples in the 1990s: from object to subject of international law?', Harvard Human Rights Journal, 7, Spring, 1994, pp. 33-86 at pp. 70-72. Many States in the region have ratified ILO Convention 169 which obliges States to take special measures to safeguard the property, cultures and environment of indigenous and tribal peoples.
66. See generally: M. Benavides, 'Amazon Indigenous peoples: new challenges for political participation and sustainable development', Cultural Survival Quarterly, 20, 3, pp. 50-53; K. Sikkink, 'Human rights, principled issue-networks, and sovereignty in Latin America', International Organisation, 47, 3, 1993, pp. 411-441; James Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law, Oxford University Press, New York, 1996; D. Lee van Cott, 'Prospects for self-determination of indigenous peoples in Latin America: questions of law and practice', Global Governance, 2, 1996, pp. 43-64. R. L. Barsh, 'Indigenous peoples in the 1990s: from object to subject of international law?', Harvard Human Rights Journal, 7, Spring, 1994, pp. 33-86 at pp. 70-72. Many States in the region have ratified ILO Convention 169 which obliges States to take special measures to safeguard the property, cultures and environment of indigenous and tribal peoples.
67. See generally: M. Benavides, 'Amazon Indigenous peoples: new challenges for political participation and sustainable development', Cultural Survival Quarterly, 20, 3, pp. 50-53; K. Sikkink, 'Human rights, principled issue-networks, and sovereignty in Latin America', International Organisation, 47, 3, 1993, pp. 411-441; James Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law, Oxford University Press, New York, 1996; D. Lee van Cott, 'Prospects for self-determination of indigenous peoples in Latin America: questions of law and practice', Global Governance, 2, 1996, pp. 43-64. R. L. Barsh, 'Indigenous peoples in the 1990s: from object to subject of international law?', Harvard Human Rights Journal, 7, Spring, 1994, pp. 33-86 at pp. 70-72. Many States in the region have ratified ILO Convention 169 which obliges States to take special measures to safeguard the property, cultures and environment of indigenous and tribal peoples.
68. See generally: M. Benavides, 'Amazon Indigenous peoples: new challenges for political participation and sustainable development', Cultural Survival Quarterly, 20, 3, pp. 50-53; K. Sikkink, 'Human rights, principled issue-networks, and sovereignty in Latin America', International Organisation, 47, 3, 1993, pp. 411-441; James Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law, Oxford University Press, New York, 1996; D. Lee van Cott, 'Prospects for self-determination of indigenous peoples in Latin America: questions of law and practice', Global Governance, 2, 1996, pp. 43-64. R. L. Barsh, 'Indigenous peoples in the 1990s: from object to subject of international law?', Harvard Human Rights Journal, 7, Spring, 1994, pp. 33-86 at pp. 70-72. Many States in the region have ratified ILO Convention 169 which obliges States to take special measures to safeguard the property, cultures and environment of indigenous and tribal peoples.
69. E. C. Peralta, 'A call for intellectual property rights to recognise indigenous peoples' knowledge of genetic and cultural resources' in A. F. Kralliger, J. A. McNeely, W. H. Lesser, K. R. Miller, Y. St Hill and R. Senagake, (eds), Widening Perspectives on Biodiversity, IUCN, Gland, and International Academy of the Environment, Geneva, 1994, pp. 287-289.
70. The US government was funding bioprospecting under the International Cooperative Biodiversity Group (ICBG) programme, and Shaman Pharmaceuticals was also actively bioprospecting in the region. See generally: Edward H. Hammond III, A Business of Development? Bioprospectors, Indigenous People, and the Pharmaceutical Industry in Northeastern Peru, thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degrees of Master of Science in Community and Regional Planning and Master of Arts in Latin American Studies, Faculty of the Graduate School, University of Texas, Austin, 1995.
71. The Common Regime for the Protection of Plant Breeders' Rights in Member States, Decision 345, established a regional plant breeders' rights regime consistent with the International Union for the Protection of New Plant Varieties (UPOV) 1991. Decision 344 on industrial property provided enhanced protection for biotechnologies, microorganisms and plants not found in nature and related processes for the development of such 'inventions'. See generally: C. M. Correa, 'Implementation of the TRIPS Agreement in Latin America and the Caribbean', European Intellectual Property Review, 8, 1997, pp. 435-443.
72. Society Sociedad Peruana de Derecho Ambiental (SPDA), an NGO founded in 1986.
73. B. Tobin, 'Putting the commercial cart before the cultural horse: a study of the International Cooperative Biodiversity Group (ICBG) Program in Peru', n.d., typescript copy.
74. IUCN Environmental Law Centre with the assistance of the Peruvian Environmental Law Society, 'Toward a legal framework to regulate access to genetic resources in the Andean Pact: report for the Board of the Cartagena Accord', Bonn, 1994, typescript copy.
75. Personal comment by IUCN Environmental Law Centre staff, Patricia Moore & Lyle Glowa, 18 October, 1996.
76. The Comission del Acuerdo Cartagena: 1996, Decision 391: Regimen Comun sobre Acceso a los Recursos Geneticos, Gaceta Oficial, Ano XII, Numero 213, Lima, 17 de Julio 1996: K. ten Kate, 'The common regime on access to genetic resources in the Andean Pact', note 1.
77. Human genetic resources and customary exchange of genetic resources by indigenous, Afroamerican or local communities are excluded from the scope of the decision: Article 4.
78. Article 2, 'Andean Pact Decision 391, common regime on access to genetic resources', unofficial translation by the IUCN Environmental Law Centre, typescript copy. CGRFA-Ex4/97/Report, Appendix E3.