We All Want a Revolution: Neustadt, New Institutionalism, and the Future of Presidency Research

Presidential Studies Quarterly

Volumn 39, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 736-770

  Dickinson, Matthew J ^a  

^a MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85164816583     PISSN: 03604918     EISSN: 17415705     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-5705.2009.03703.x     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. Aberbach, Joel D., and Bert A. Rockman. 1988. “Mandates or Mandarins? Control and Discretion in the Modern Administrative State. Public Administration Review 48 (March/April): 606-12.
2. Alchian, Armen A., and Susan Woodward. 1987. “Reflections on the Theory of the Firm. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 143 (March): 110-36.
3. Baum, Matthew, and Samuel Kernell. 1999. “Has Cable Ended the Golden Age of Presidential Television? American Political Science Review 93 (March): 1-16.
4. Beckmann, Matthew. 2008. “The President's Playbook: White House Strategies for Lobbying Congress. Journal of Politics 70 (April): 407-19.
5. Beckmann, Matthew. n.d. “Pulling the Levers of Power: Presidential Leadership in U.S. Lawmaking, 1953-2004.” Unpublished manuscript.
6. Bendor, Jonathan B. 1985. Parallel Systems: Redundancy in Government. Berkeley: University of California Press.
7. Bodnick, Mark. 1990. “Going Public Reconsidered: Reagan's 1981 Tax and Budget Cuts, and Revisionist Theories of Presidential Power. Congress and the Presidency 17 (Spring): 13-28.
8. Bond, Jon R., and Richard Fleisher. 1990. The President in the Legislative Arena. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
9. Bond, Jon R., Richard Fleisher, and Glen Krutz. 1996. “An Overview of the Empirical Findings on Presidential-Congressional Relations.” In Rivals for Power: Presidential-Congressional Relations, ed. James A. Thurber. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
10. Brace, Paul, and Barbara Hinckley. 1992. Follow the Leader: Opinion Polls and the Modern Presidents. New York: Basic Books.
11. Brady, David W., and Craig Volden. 1998. Revolving Gridlock: Politics and Policy from Carter to Clinton. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
12. Brody, Richard A. 1991. Assessing the President: The Media, Elite Opinion, and Public Support. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
13. Burke, John P. 1992. The Institutional Presidency. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
14. Cameron, Charles M. 2000a. “Bargaining and Presidential Power.” In Presidential Power: Forging the Presidency for the Twenty-First Century, eds. Robert Y. Shapiro, Martha Joynt Kumar, and Lawrence R. Jacobs. New York: Columbia University Press.
15. Cameron, Charles M. 2000b. Veto Bargaining: Presidents and the Politics of Negative Power. New York: Cambridge University Press.
16. Canes-Wrone, Brandice. 2001. “The President's Legislative Influence from Public Appeals. American Journal of Political Science 45 (April): 313-29.
17. Canes-Wrone, Brandice. 2004. “The Public Presidency, Personal Approval Ratings, and Policy Making. Presidential Studies Quarterly 34 (September): 477-92.
18. Canes-Wrone, Brandice. 2006. Who Leads Whom? Presidents, Policy, and the Public. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
19. Canes-Wrone, Brandice, and Scott De Marchi. 2002. “Presidential Approval and Legislative Success. Journal of Politics 64 (May): 491-509.
20. Canes-Wrone, Brandice, and Kenneth W. Shotts. 2004. “The Conditional Nature of Presidential Responsiveness to Public Opinion. American Journal of Political Science 48 (October): 690-706.
21. Coase, Ronald. 1937. “The Nature of the Firm. Economica 4: 386-405.
22. Cohen, Jeffrey E. 1997. Presidential Responsiveness and Public Policy-Making: The Public and the Policies That Presidents Choose. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
23. Cohen, Jeffrey E. 2008. “Presidential Leadership in the Age of the New Media.” In Presidential Leadership: The Vortex of Power, eds. Bert A. Rockman and Richard W. Waterman. New York: Oxford University of Press.
24. Collier, Kenneth, and Terry Sullivan. 1995. “New Evidence Undercutting the Linkage of Approval with Presidential Support and Influence. Journal of Politics 57 (February): 197-209.
25. Cooper, Phillip J. 2002. By Order of the President: The Use and Abuse of Executive Direct Action. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
26. Corwin, Edward S. 1957. The President: Office and Powers. 4th ed. New York: New York University Press.
27. Covington, Cary R. 1987. “ ‘Staying Private': Gaining Congressional Support for Unpublicized Presidential Preferences on Roll Call Votes. Journal of Politics 49 (August): 737-55.
28. Covington, Cary R., Mark Wrighton, and Rhonda Kinney. 1995. “A Presidency-Augmented Model of Presidential Success on House Roll Call Votes. American Journal of Political Science 39 (November): 1001-24.
29. Dickinson, Matthew J. 1996. “Neustadt and New Institutionalists: New Insights on Presidential Power?” Occasional Paper, Center for American Politics Studies, Harvard University.
30. Dickinson, Matthew J. 1997. Bitter Harvest: FDR, Presidential Power and the Growth of the Presidential Branch. New York: Cambridge University Press.
31. Dickinson, Matthew J. 2000. “Staffing the White House, 1937-1996: The Institutional Implications of Neustadt's Bargaining Paradigm.” In Presidential Power: Forging the Presidency for the Twenty-First Century, eds. Robert Y. Shapiro, Martha Joynt Kumar, and Lawrence R. Jacobs. New York: Columbia University Press.
32. Dickinson, Matthew J. 2003. “Bargaining, Uncertainty, and the Growth of the White House Staff.” In Uncertainty in American Politics, ed. Barry C. Burden. New York: Cambridge University Press.
33. Dickinson, Matthew J. 2005. “Neustadt, New Institutionalism, and the Presidential Decision Making: A Theory and Test. Presidential Studies Quarterly 35 (June): 259-88.
34. Dickinson, Matthew J., and Matthew J. Lebo. 2007. “Reexamining the Growth of the Institutional Presidency, 1940-2000. Journal of Politics 69 (February): 206-19.
35. Dickinson, Matthew J., and Amy Yuen. 2008. “Decisionmaking in the White House: Assessing the Models.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 28-31, Boston.
36. Dietz, Nathan. 2002. “Presidential Influence on Congress: New Solutions to Old Problems.” In Rivals for Power: Presidential-Congressional Relations, ed. James A. Thurber. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
37. Durant, Robert F. 1992. The Administrative Presidency Revisited: Public Lands, the BLM, and the Reagan Revolution. Albany: State University of New York Press.
38. Edwards, George C., III. 1980. Presidential Influence in Congress. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co.
39. Edwards, George C., III. 1981. “The Quantitative Study of the Presidency. Presidential Studies Quarterly 11 (Spring): 146-50.
40. Edwards, George C., III. 1989. At the Margins: Presidential Leadership of Congress. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
41. Edwards, George C., III. 1991. “Presidential Influence in Congress: If We Ask the Wrong Questions, We Get the Wrong Answers. American Journal of Political Science 35 (August): 724-29.
42. Edwards, George C., III. 2000. “Neustadt's Power Approach to the Presidency.” In Presidential Power: Forging the Presidency for the Twenty-First Century, eds. Robert Y. Shapiro, Martha Joynt Kumar, and Lawrence R. Jacobs. New York: Columbia University Press.
43. Edwards, George C., III. 2003. On Deaf Ears: The Limits of the Bully Pulpit. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
44. Edwards, George C., III. 2008. “Impediments to Presidential Leadership: The Limitations of the Permanent Campaign and Going Public Strategies.” In Presidential Leadership: The Vortex of Power, eds. Bert A. Rockman and Richard W. Waterman. New York: Oxford University Press.
45. Edwards, George C., III, and Andrew Barrett. 2000. “Presidential Agenda Setting in Congress.” In Polarized Politics: Congress and the President in a Partisan Era, ed. Jon R. Bond and Richard Fleisher. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
46. Edwards, George C., III, John H. Kessel, and Bert A. Rockman, eds. 1993. Researching the Presidency: Vital Questions, New Approaches. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
47. Epstein, David, and Sharyn O'Halloran. 1999. Delegating Powers: A Transaction Cost Politics Approach to Policy Making Under Separate Powers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
48. Fett, Patrick. 1994. “Presidential Legislative Priorities and Legislator's Voting Decisions: An Exploratory Analysis. Journal of Politics 56 (May): 502-12.
49. Fleisher, Richard, Jon R. Bond, and B. Dan Wood. 2008. “Which Presidents Are Uncommonly Successful in Congress?” In Presidential Leadership: The Vortex of Power, eds. Bert A. Rockman and Richard W. Waterman. New York: Oxford University Press.
50. George, Alexander L. 1980. Presidential Decisionmaking in Foreign Policy: The Effective Use of Information and Advice. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
51. Greenstein, Fred I. 1982. The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader. New York: Basic Books.
52. Hammond, Thomas H. 1986. “Agenda Control, Organizational Structure, and Hierarchy in Bureaucratic Politics. American Journal of Political Science 30 (May): 379-420.
53. Hammond, Thomas H. 1994. “Structure, Strategy, and the Agenda of the Firm.” In Fundamental Issues in Strategy: A Research Agenda, eds. Richard P. Rumelt, Dan E. Schendel, and David J. Teece. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
54. Hammond, Thomas H., and Gary J. Miller. 1985. “A Social Choice Perspective on Expertise and Authority in Bureaucracy. American Journal of Political Science 29 (February): 1-28.
55. Haney, Patrick J. 1997. Organizing for Foreign Policy Crises: Presidents, Advisers, and the Management of Decision-making. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
56. Hargrove, Erwin. 1998. The President as Leader: Appealing to the Better Angels of Our Nature. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
57. Hargrove, Erwin. 2001. “Presidential Power and Political Science. Presidential Studies Quarterly 31 (June): 245-61.
58. Hart, John. 1995. The Presidential Branch: From Washington to Clinton. 2nd ed. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House.
59. Hart, John. 1998. “Neglected Aspects of the Study of the Presidency. Annual Review of Political Science 1: 379-99.
60. Heclo, Hugh. 1977a. A Government of Strangers: Executive Politics in Washington. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
61. Heclo, Hugh. 1977b. Studying the Presidency. New York: Ford Foundation.
62. Hess, Stephen, with James P. Pfiffner. 2002. Organizing the Presidency. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
63. Hibbs, Douglas A. 1987. The American Political Economy: Macroeconomics and Electoral Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
64. Hinckley, Barbara. 1990. The Symbolic Presidency: How Presidents Portray Themselves. New York: Routledge.
65. Howell, William G. 2003. Power Without Persuasion: The Politics of Direct Presidential Action. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
66. Hult, Karen M., and Charles E. Walcott. 2004. Empowering the White House: Governance Under Nixon, Ford, and Carter. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
67. Iyengar, Shanto, and Donald Kinder. 1987. News That Matters: Television and American Opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
68. Jacobs, Lawrence R., and Robert Y. Shapiro. 2000. “Conclusion: Presidential Power, Institutions, and Democracy.” In Presidential Power: Forging the Presidency for the Twenty-First Century, eds. Robert Y. Shapiro, Martha Joynt Kumar, and Lawrence R. Jacobs. New York: Columbia University Press.
69. Johnson, Richard Tanner. 1974. Managing the White House: An Intimate Study of the Presidency. New York: Harper & Row.
70. Jones, Charles O. 1994. The Presidency in a Separated System. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
71. Jones, Charles O. 2001. “Professional Reputation and the Neustadt Formulation. Presidential Studies Quarterly 31 (June): 281-95.
72. Jones, Charles O. 2003. “Richard Neustadt: Public Servant as Scholar Annual Review of Political Science 6: 1-22.
73. Kellerman, Barbara. 1984. The Political Presidency: Practice of Leadership. New York: Oxford University Press.
74. Kernell, Samuel. 1978. “Explaining Presidential Popularity. American Political Science Review 72: 506-22.
75. Kernell, Samuel. 1989. “The Evolution of the White House Staff.” In Can the Government Govern?, eds. John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
76. Kernell, Samuel. 1997. Going Public: New Strategies of Presidential Leadership. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
77. King, Anthony. 1975. “Executives.” In Handbook of Political Science, vol. 5, eds. Fred I. Greenstein and Nelson W. Polsby. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
78. King, Gary. 1993. “The Methodology of Presidency Research.” In Researching the Presidency: Vital Questions, New Approaches, eds. George C. Edwards III, John H. Kessel, and Bert A. Rockman. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
79. Krehbiel, Keith. 1998. Pivotal Politics A Theory of U.S. Lawmaking. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
80. Kumar, Martha Joynt, and Terry Sullivan, eds. 2003. The White House World: Transitions, Organization, and Office Operations. College Station: Texas A&M University Press.
81. Landau, Martin. 1969. “Redundancy, Rationality, and the Problem of Duplication and Overlap. Public Administration Review 29 (July/August): 346-58.
82. Lewis, David E. 2006. “Presidents and the Bureaucracy. Management Imperatives in a Separation of Powers System.” In The Presidency and the Political System, 8th ed., ed. Michael Nelson. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
83. Lieberman, Robert C. 2000. “Political Time and Policy Coalitions.” In Presidential Power: Forging the Presidency for the Twenty-First Century, eds. Robert Y. Shapiro, Martha Joynt Kumar, and Lawrence R. Jacobs. New York: Columbia University Press.
84. Light, Paul C. 1999. The President's Agenda: Domestic Policy Choice from Kennedy to Carter. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
85. Lockerbie, Brad, and Stephen A. Borrelli. 1989. “Getting Inside the Beltway: Perceptions of Presidential Skill and Success in Congress. British Journal of Political Science 19 (January): 97-106.
86. Lowi, Theodore J. 1985. The Personal President: Power Invested, Promise Unfulfilled. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
87. Mackenzie, G. Calvin. 2001. “The State of the Presidential Appointments Process.” In Innocent Until Nominated: The Breakdown of the Presidential Appointments Process, ed. G. Calvin Mackenzie. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
88. Mayer, Jane, and Doyle McManus. 1988. Landslide: The Unmaking of the President, 1984-1988. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
89. Mayer, Kenneth R. 2002. With the Stroke of a Pen: Executive Orders and Presidential Power. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
90. Miller, Gary J. 1992. Managerial Dilemmas: The Political Economy of Hierarchy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
91. Miller, Gary J., and Terry M. Moe. 1986. “The Positive Theory of Hierarchies.” In Political Science: The Science of Politics, ed. Herbert F. Weisberg. New York: Agathon Press.
92. Moe, Terry M. 1984. “The New Economics of Organizations. American Journal of Political Science 28 (November): 739-77.
93. Moe, Terry M. 1985. “The Politicized Presidency.” In The New Direction in American Politics, eds. John Chubb and Paul E. Peterson. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
94. Moe, Terry M. 1993. “Presidents, Institutions, and Theory.” In Researching the Presidency: Vital Questions, New Approaches, eds. George C. Edwards III, John H. Kessel, and Bert A. Rockman. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
95. Moe, Terry M. 2009. “The Revolution in Presidential Studies. Presidential Studies Quarterly 39 (December): 702-25.
96. Moe, Terry M., and William G. Howell. 1999. “The Presidential Power of Unilateral Action. Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 15 (March): 132-79.
97. Moe, Terry M., and Scott A. Wilson. 1994. “Presidents and the Politics of Structure. Law and Contemporary Problems 57 (Spring): 1-44.
98. Mouw, Calvin, and Michael MacKuen. 1992a. “The Strategic Agenda in Legislative Politics. American Political Science Review 86 (March): 87-105.
99. Mouw, Calvin, and Michael MacKuen. 1992b. “The Strategic Configuration, Personal Influence, and Presidential Power in Congress. Western Political Quarterly 45 (September): 579-608.
100. Mueller, John E. 1970. “Presidential Popularity from Truman to Johnson. American Political Science Review 64 (March): 18-34.
101. Nathan, Richard P. 1983. The Administrative Presidency. New York: Wiley.
102. Neustadt, Richard E. 1954. “Presidency and Legislation: The Growth of Central Clearance. American Political Science Review 48 (September): 641-71.
103. Neustadt, Richard E. 1955. “Presidency and Legislation: Planning the President's Program. American Political Science Review 49 (December): 980-1021.
104. Neustadt, Richard E. 1963. “Approaches to Staffing the Presidency: Notes on FDR and JFK. American Political Science Review 57 (December): 855-63.
105. Neustadt, Richard E. 1990. Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents: The Politics of Leadership from Roosevelt to Reagan. New York: Free Press.
106. Neustadt, Richard E. 2000. “A Preachment from Retirement.” In Presidential Power: Forging the Presidency for the Twenty-First Century, eds. Robert Y. Shapiro, Martha Joynt Kumar, and Lawrence R. Jacobs. New York: Columbia University Press.
107. Neustadt, Richard E., and Ernest R. May. 1986. Thinking in Time: The Uses of History for Decision-Makers. New York: Free Press.
108. North, Douglass C. 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.
109. Ostrom, Charles W., and Dennis M. Simon. 1985. “Promise and Performance: A Dynamic Model of Presidential Popularity. American Political Science Review 79 (June): 334-58.
110. Ostrom, Charles W., and Dennis M. Simon. 1988. “The President's Public. American Journal of Political Science 32 (November): 1096-1119.
111. Page, Benjamin I., and Robert Y. Shapiro. 1992. The Rational Public: Fifty Years of Trends in Americans' Policy Preferences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
112. Patterson, Bradley H., Jr. 2000. The White House Staff: Inside the West Wing and Beyond. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
113. Peterson, Mark A. 1990. Legislating Together: The White House and Capitol Hill from Eisenhower to Reagan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
114. Pfiffner, James P. 1988. The Strategic Presidency: Hitting the Ground Running. Chicago: Dorsey Press.
115. Pfiffner, James P. 1991. “Can the President Manage the Government? Should He?” In The Managerial Presidency, ed. James P. Pfiffner. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
116. Pious, Richard M. 1979. The American Presidency. New York. Basic Books.
117. Porter, Roger B. 1980. Presidential Decision Making: The Economic Policy Board. New York: Cambridge University Press.
118. Pratt, John W., and Richard Zeckhauser. 1985. “Principles and Agents: An Overview.” In Principles and Agents: The Structure of Business, eds. John W. Pratt and Richard Zeckhauser. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
119. Price, Don K. 1960. “Presidential Power. American Political Science Review 54 (September): 735-36.
120. Ragsdale, Lyn. 2000. “Personal Power and Presidents.” In Presidential Power: Forging the Presidency for the Twenty-First Century, eds. Robert Y. Shapiro, Martha Joynt Kumar, and Lawrence R. Jacobs. New York: Columbia University Press.
121. Riley, Russell. 2000. “The Limits of the Transformational Presidency.” In Presidential Power: Forging the Presidency for the Twenty-First Century, eds. Robert Y. Shapiro, Martha Joynt Kumar, and Lawrence R. Jacobs. New York: Columbia University Press.
122. Rivers, Douglas, and Nancy Rose. 1985. “Passing a President's Program: Public Opinion and Presidential Influence in Congress. American Journal of Political Science 29 (May): 183-96.
123. Robinson, Greg. 2001. By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
124. Rossiter, Clinton. 1956. The American Presidency. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
125. Rudalevige, Andrew. 2002a. Managing the President's Program: Presidential Leadership and Legislative Policy Formulation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
126. Rudalevige, Andrew. 2002b. “The Structure of Leadership: Information, Organization, and Presidential Decisionmaking.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 29-September 1, Boston.
127. Sagan, Scott, and Jeremi Suri. 2003. “The Madman Nuclear Alert: Secrecy, Signaling and Safety in October 1969. International Security 27 (Spring): 150-83.
128. Sander, Alfred Dick. 1989. A Staff for the President: The Executive Office, 1921-1952. New York: Greenwood Press.
129. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. 1965. One Thousand Days. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
130. Seligman, Lester G., and Cary R. Covington. 1989. The Coalitional Presidency. Chicago: Dorsey Press.
131. Shapiro, Robert Y., Martha Joynt Kumar, and Lawrence R. Jacobs, eds. 2000. Presidential Power: Forging the Presidency for the Twenty-First Century. New York: Columbia University Press.
132. Shull, Stephen, and Thomas A. Shaw. 1999. Explaining Congressional-Presidential Relations: A Multiple Perspectives Approach. Albany: State University of New York Press.
133. Simon, Herbert A. 1976. Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organization. 3rd ed. New York: Free Press.
134. Skowronek, Stephen. 1987. Review of The Rhetorical Presidency, by Jeffrey Tulis. Review of Politics 49 (Summer): 430.
135. Skowronek, Stephen. 1993. The Politics Presidents Make: Leadership from john Adams to George Bush. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
136. Skowronek, Stephen. 2008. Presidential Leadership in Political Time: Reprise and Reappraisal. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
137. Sperlich, Peter. 1969. “Bargaining and Overload: An Essay on Presidential Power.” In The Presidency, ed. Aaron Wildavsky. Boston: Little, Brown.
138. Stockman, David A. 1986. The Triumph of Politics: How the Reagan Revolution Failed. New York: Harper & Row.
139. Sullivan, Terry. 1988. “Headcounts, Expectations, and Presidential Coalitions in Congress. American Journal of Political Science 32 (July): 567-89.
140. Sullivan, Terry. 1990. “Explaining Why Presidents Count: Signaling and Information. Journal of Politics 52 (August): 939-62.
141. Sullivan, Terry. 1991. “Bargaining with the President: A Simple Game and New Evidence. American Political Science Review 84 (December): 1167-95.
142. Sullivan, Terry. 2004. Review of Power Without Persuasion: The Politics of Direct Presidential Action, by William G. Howell. Presidential Studies Quarterly 34 (June): 459-61.
143. Sundquist, James L. 1981. The Decline and Resurgence of Congress. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
144. Tatalovich, Raymond, and Thomas S. Engeman. 2003. The Presidency and Political Science: Two Hundred Years of Constitutional Debate. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
145. Walcott, Charles E., and Karen M. Hult. 1995. Governing the White House: From Hoover Through LBJ. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
146. Waterman, Richard W. 1989. Presidential Influence and the Administrative State. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
147. Wayne, Stephen J. 1983. “Approaches.” In Studying the Presidency, eds. George C. Edwards III and Stephen J. Wayne. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
148. Williamson, Oliver E. 1975. Markets and Hierarchies, Analysis and Antitrust Implications: A Study in the Economics of Internal Organization. New York: Free Press.