Essentials of the Earth’s Climate System

Essentials of the Earth’s Climate System

Volumn , Issue , 2014, Pages 1-259

  Barry, Roger G ^a   Hall McKim, Eileen A ^b  

^a NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY CENTRE   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85142108119     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139583909     Document Type: Book

References (199)

1. Allen, R. J. 2012. Recent Northern Hemisphere tropical expansion primarily driven by black carbon and tropospheric ozone. Nature, DOI 10.1038/nature11097.
2. Arguez, A. and Vose, R. S. 2011. The definition of the standard WMO climate normal. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 92(6): 699-704.
3. Armstrong R., Brodzik, M. J., and Savoie, M. H., 2003. Multi-sensor Approach to Mapping Snow Cover Using Data from NASA’s EOS Aqua and Terra Spacecraft (AMSR-E and MODIS). Boulder, CO: National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC), University of Colorado.
4. Baldocchi, D., Falge, E., Lianhong, G., et al. 2011. FLUXNET: a new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor and energy flux densities. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 82: 4216-34.
5. Barnett, T. P., Pierce, D. W., Hidalgo, H. G., et al. 2008. Human-induced changes in the hydrology of the western United States. Science, 319: 1080-83.
6. Barrett, E. C. 1974. Climatology From Satellites. London: Routledge.
7. Barry, R. G. 1967. Models in meteorology and climatology. In Chorley, R. J. and Haggett, P., Models in Geography. London: Methuen.
8. Barry, R. G. 2008. Mountain Weather and Climate. 3rd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 512 pp.
9. Barry, R. G. 2012. A brief history of the terms climate and climatology. Int. J. Climatol., 32: DOI: 10.1002/joc.3504
10. Barry, R. G. and Carleton, A. M. 2001. Synoptic and Dynamic Climatology. London:Routledge. 620 pp.
11. Barry, R. G. and Chorley, R. J. 2010. Atmosphere, Weather and Climate. 9th edn. London:Routledge. 516 pp.
12. Barry, R. G. and Gan, T. Y. 2011. The Global Cryosphere: Past, Present and Future. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 477 pp.
13. Barry, R. G. and Perry, A. H. 1973. Synoptic Climatology: Methods and Applications. London: Methuen. 555 pp.
14. Barry, R.G. andPerry, A. H. 2001. Synoptic climatology andits applications. In Barry, R.G. and Carleton, A. M., Synoptic and Dynamic Climatology. London: Routledge, pp. 547-603.
15. Bartholomew, J. G. 1897-1899. Atlas of Meteorology. London: J. Bartholomew and Co. 34 sheets.
16. Bartzokas, A. and Metaxas, D. A. 1996. Northern Hemisphere gross circulation types:Climate change and temperature distribution. Met. Zeitschr., 5: 99-109.
17. Bates, B. C., Kundzewicz. Z. W., Wu, S. and Palutikof, J. P. (eds.) 2008. Climate Change and Water. Geneva: IPCC Secretariat, 210 pp.
18. Beck, C., Jacobeit, J., and Jones, P. D. 2007. Frequency and within-type variations of large scale circulation types and their effects on low-frequency climate variability in Central Europe since 1780. Int. J. Climatol., 27: 473-91.
19. Berry, G., Jakob, C., and Reeder, M. 2011. Recent global trends in atmospheric fronts. Geophys. Res. Lett., 38: L21812.
20. Blundon, J. and Arndt, D. S. (eds.) 2012. State of the climate in 2012. Special supplement to Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 93(7): 1-263.
21. Bonan, G. B. 1995. Sensitivity of a GCM simulation to inclusion of inland water surfaces. J. Climate, 8: 2691-704.
22. Bradley, R. S. 1999. Paleoclimatology: Reconstructing Climates of the Quaternary. New York:Academic Press.
23. Brown, W. 1842. Mean pressure of the atmosphere in different latitudes. London, Edinburgh and Dublin Phil. Mag. and J. Science, 20: 469.
24. Buchan, A. 1867. Themean pressure of the atmosphere and the prevailingwinds over the globe for the months and for the year. Part 1. January, July. Year. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 6: 303-7.
25. Buchan, A. 1869. The mean pressure of the atmosphere and the prevailing winds over the globe for the months and for the year. Part 2. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 25: 575-637.
26. Budyko, M. I. 1962. The heat balance of the surface of the earth. Soviet Geography 3(5): 3-16.
27. Budyko, M. I. 1974. Climate and Life. (Transl. D. H.Miller).NewYork: AcademicPress, 346pp.
28. Bulygina, O. N., Razuvaev, V. N., and Korshunova, N. N. 2009. Changes in snow cover over Northern Eurasia in the last few decades. Environ. Res. Lett., 4: 045026.
29. Burnette, D. J. and Stahle, D. W. 2013. Historical perspective on the dust bowl drought in the central United States. Clim. Change, 116: 479-94.
30. Carleton, A. M. 1991. Satellite Remote Sensing in Climatology. London: Belhaven. 291 pp.
31. Cassano, J. J., Uotila, J., and Lynch, A. 2006. Changes in synoptic weather patterns in the polar regions in the twenty-first century. Part 1: Arctic. Int. J. Climatol., 26: 1027-49.
32. Cassano, E. N., Cassano, J. J., and Nolan, M. 2011. Synoptic weather pattern controls on temperature in Alaska. J. Geophys. Res., 116: D11108.
33. Cassou, C., Terray, L., Hurrell, J. W., and Deser, C. 2004. North Atlantic winter climate regimes: spatial asymmetry, stationarity with time, and oceanic forcing. J. Climate, 17: 1055-68.
34. Catto, J. L., Jakob, C., Berry., G., and Nicholls, N. 2012. Relating global precipitation to atmospheric fronts. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39: L10805. DOI:10.1029/2012GL051736.
35. Cecil, D. J. and Blankenship, C. B. 2012. Toward a global climatology of severe hailstorms as estimated by satellite passive microwave imagers. J. Climate, 25: 687-703.
36. Chagnon, S. 1996. Effects of summer precipitation on urban transportation. Clim. Change, 32: 481-94.
37. Chandler, T. J. 1965. The Climate of London. London: Hutchinson. 292 pp.
38. Coffin, J. H. 1853. On the Winds of the Northern Hemisphere. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute.
39. Coffin, J. H. 1876. The Winds of the Globe or the Laws of the Atmosphere’s Circulation over the Surface of the Earth. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute. 756 pp.
40. Coleman, J. S.M. and Rogers, J.C, 2007. A synoptic climatology of the central United States and associations with Pacific teleconnection pattern frequency. J. Climate, 20: 3485-97.
41. Cook, E. R., Seager, R., Heim, R. R., Vose, R. S., Herweijer, C., and Woodhouse, C. 2009. Megadroughts in North America: Placing IPCC projections of hydroclimatic change in a long-term paleoclimate context. J. Quatern. Sci., DOI: 10.1002/jqs.1303.
42. Coumou, D. and Rahmstorf, S. 2012. A decade of weather extremes, Nature Clim. Change, 2(7): 491-96.
43. Crane, R. G. and Barry, R. G., 1988. Comparison of the MSL synoptic pressure patterns of the Arctic as observed and simulated by the GISS General Circulation Model. Met. Atmos. Phys., 39: 169-83.
44. Crowe, P. R. 1971. Concepts of Climatology. London: Longmans. 589 pp.
45. Dai, A. 2010. Drought under global warming: A review. Wiley Interdisc. Rev. Clim. Change, 2: 45-65.
46. Daly, C., Widrlechner, M. P., Halbleib, M. D., Smith, J. I., and Gibson, W. P. 2012. Development of a new USDA plant hardiness zone map for the United States. J. Appl. Met. Clim., 52: 242-64.
47. DeConto, R. M., Galeotti, S., Pagani, M., et al. 2012. Past extreme warming events linked to massive carbon release from thawing permafrost. Nature, 484: 87-91.
48. Diaz, H. F. and Eisacheid, J. K. 2007. Disappearing “alpine tundra” Köppen climatic type in the western United States. Geophys. Res. Lett., 34: L18707.
49. Diaz, H. F. and Kiladis, G. N. 1992. Atmospheric teleconnections associated with the extreme phases of the Southern Oscillation. In H. F. Diaz and V. Markgraf (eds.), El Niño: Historical and Paleoclimatic Aspects of the Southern Oscillation. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, pp. 7-28.
50. Diaz, H. F., Trigo, R., Hughes, M., Mann, M., Xoplaki, E., and Barriopedro, D. 2011. Spatial and temporal characteristics of climate in medieval times revisited. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 92: 1487-500.
51. Dixon, P. G., Brommer, D. M., Hedquist, B. C., et al. 2005. Heat mortality versus cold mortality. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 86: 937-43.
52. Dzerdeevski, B. L. 1963. Fluctuations of general circulation of the atmosphere and climate in the twentieth century. In: Changes of Climate: Arid zone Research 20: Paris:UNESCO, pp. 285-95.
53. Eddy, J. A. 1976. The Maunder minimum. Science, 192(4245): 1189-1202.
54. Emanuel, K. 2003. Tropical cyclones. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 31: 75-104.
55. Fasullo, J. T. and Trenberth, K. E. 2008. The annual cycle of the energy budget. Part II:Meridional structures and poleward transports. J. Climate, 21: 2313-25.
56. Fischer, E. M., Luterbacher, J., Zorita, E., Tett, S. F. B., Casty, C., and Wanner, H. 2007. European climate response to tropical volcanic eruptions over the last half millennium. Geophys. Res. Lett., 34: L05707.
57. Food and Agricultural Organization. 2010. Global Forest Resource Assessment 2010. Rome:FAO. 378 pp.
58. Frederick, K. D. and Gleick, P. H. 1999. Water and Global Climate Change: Potential Impacts on U. S. Water Resources. Washington, DC: Pew Center on Global Climate Change.
59. Galameau, T. J., Jr., Bosart, L. F., Aiyyer, A. R., and Atallah, E. 2004. Global climatology of 1000-500 hPa thickness highs and lows. Frederick Sanders Symposium, American Meteorological Society, January 12, 2004, Seattle, WA.
60. Garreaud, R., Vuille, M., and Clements, A. C. 2003. The climate of the Altiplano: Observed current conditions and mechanisms of past changes. Palaeogeog., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 194: 5-22.
61. Geerts, B. 2002. Empirical Estimation of the annual range of monthly-mean temperatures. Theoret. Appl. Climatol., 73: 107-32.
62. Geiger, R., Aron, R., and Todhunter, P. 2003. Climate Near the Ground. 6th edn. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. 584 pp.
63. Gimeno, L., Trigo, R. M., and Stohl, A. 2010. On the origin of continental precipitation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 37: L13804, DOI:10.1029/2010GL043712.
64. Gimeno, L., Drumond, A., Nieto, R., et al. 2011. A close look at oceanic sources of continental precipitation. Eos. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 92(23): 193-4.
65. Gimeno, L., Stohl, A., Trigo, R. M., et al. 2012. Oceanic and terrestrial sources of continental precipitation. Rev. Geophys., DOI:10.1029/2012RG000389.
66. Girs, A. A. 1966. Intra-periodical transformations of the atmosphere and their causes. In Girs, A. A. and Dydina, L. A. (eds.), Contributions to Long-Range Weather Forecasting in the Arctic. Jerusalem: Israel Program of Scientific Translations, pp. 13-45.
67. Gleick, P. H. 2000. Water: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change for the Water Resources of the United States. Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security. 151 pp.
68. Gleick, P. H. (ed.) 2009. The World’s Water, Vol. 7, 2008-2009, Washington, DC: Island Press.
69. Godske, C L. 1966. Methods of statistics and some applications to climatology. In: Statistical Analysis and Prognosis in Meteorology. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, pp. 9-86.
70. Goklany, I. M. 2007. Death and Death Rates Due to Extreme Weather Events. London:International Policy Press. 15 pp.
71. Griffin, D., Woodhouse, C., Meko, D., et al. 2013. North American monsoon precipitation reconstructed from tree-ring latewood. Geophys. Res. Lett., 40(5): DOI: 10.1002/grl.50184.
72. Grumm, R. H. 2011. The Central European and Russian heat event of July-August 2010. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 92: 1286-96.
73. Grundstein, A. and Dowd, J. 2011. Trends in extreme apparent temperatures over the United States, 1949-2010. J. Appl. Met. Climatol., 50(8): 1650-53.
74. Hanson, H. P. 1991. Marine stratocumulus climatologies. Int. J. Climatol., 11: 147-64.
75. Hartmann, D. L. 1994. Global Physical Climatology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 411 pp.
76. Hatzianastassiou, N., Matsoukas, C., Fotiadi, A., et al. 2005. Global distribution of Earth’s surface shortwave radiation budget. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 5: 4545-97.
77. Hays, J. D., Imbrie, J., and Shackleton, N. J. 1976. Variations in the Earth’s orbit: Pacemaker of the Ice Ages. Science, 194(4270): 1121-32.
78. Hewitson, B. C. and Crane, R. G. 2002. Self-organizing maps: applications to synoptic climatology. Clim. Res., 22: 13-28.
79. Höppe, P. 1997. Aspects of human biometeorology in past, present and future. Int. J. Biomet., 40: 19-23.
80. Howard, L. 1818-1820. The Climate of London, Deduced from Meteorological Observations, Made at Different Places in the Neighbourhood of the Metropolis. 2 vols., London:W. Phillips.
81. Hsu, P., Li, T., and Wang, B. 2011. Trends in global monsoon area and precipitation over the past 30 years. Geophys. Res. Lett., 38: L08701.
82. Hubbard, K. G. 2007. Agricultural climatology. J. Service Climatol., 1: 1-9.
83. Huffman, G. J., Adler, R. F., Arkin, P., et al. 1997. The Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) combined precipitation dataset. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 76: 5-20.
84. Huth, R., Beck, C., Philipp, A., et al. 2008. Classifications of atmospheric circulation patterns: Recent advances and applications. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1146: 105-52.
85. James, P. M. 2007. An objective classification method for Hess and Brezowsky Grosswetterlagen over Europe. Theoret. Appl. Clim., 88: 17-42.
86. Johnson, N. C., Feldstein, S. B., and Tremblay, B. 2008. The continuum of Northern Hemisphere teleconnection patterns and a description of the NAO shift with the use of self-organizing maps. J. Climate, 21: 6354-71.
87. Jones, J. M., Fogt, L., Widmann, M., Marshall, G., Jones, P., and Visbeck, M. 2009. Historical SAM variability. Part I: Century-length seasonal reconstructions. J. Climate, 22: 5319-45.
88. Jones, P. D., New, M., Parker, D., Martin, S., and Rigor, I. 1999. Surface air temperature and its changes over the past 150 years. Rev. Geophys., 37: 173-99.
89. Jones, P. D., Lister, D. H., Osborn, T., Harpham, C., Salmon, M., and Morice, C. 2012a. Hemispheric and large-scale land-surface air temperature variations: An extensive revision and an update to 2010. Rev. Geophys., 117: D05127.
90. Jones, P. D., Harpham, C., and Briffa, K. R. 2012b. Lamb weather types derived from reanalysis products. Int. J. Climatol., 33: 1129-39.
91. Kalkstein, L. S and Corrigan, P. 1986. A synoptic climatological approach for geographical analysis: Assessment of sulfur dioxide concentrations. Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geogr., 76:381-95.
92. Kendrew, W. G. 1961. The Climates of the Continents. 5th edn. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
93. Kidder, S. Q and Vonder Haar, T. H. 1995. Satellite Meteorology: An Introduction. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 466 pp.
94. Kirchhofer, W., 1973. Classification of 500 mb patterns. Arbeit der Schweizer Meteorol. Zentral., 43: n.p.
95. Klyashtorin, L. B. 2001. Climate Change and Long-term Fluctuations of Commercial Catches:The Possibility of Forecasting. Rome: FAO; Fisheries Technical Paper No. 46.
96. Köppen, W. 1923. Die Klimate der Erde: Gundriss der Klimakunde. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter Co.
97. Köppen, W. and Geiger, E. 1930. Handbuch der Klimatologie, 5 vols. Berlin: Gebruder Borntraeger.
98. Kozuchowsky, K. and Marciniak, K. 1988. Variability of mean monthly temperature and semi-annual precipitation totals in Europe in relation to hemispheric circulation parameters. J. Climatol., 8: 191-9.
99. Kraus, H. and Alkhalal, A. 1995. Characteristic surface energy budgets for different climate types. Int. J. Climatol., 15: 275-84.
100. Kysely, J. and Domonkos, P. 2006. Recent increase in persistence of atmospheric circulation over Europe: comparison with long-term variations since 1881. Int. J. Climatol., 26:461-83.
101. Lamb, H. H. 1972. British Isles Weather Types and a Register of Daily Sequence of Circulation Patterns, 1861-1971. London: HMSO. 85 pp.
102. Lamb, H. H. 1990. Climate: Past, Present and Future. Vol.2. London: Methuen.
103. Landsberg, H. E. (ed.) 1969-1995. World Survey of Climatology. 16 vols. Amsterdam:Elsevier.
104. Lau, W. K.M. and Kim, K.-M. 2012. The 2010 Pakistan flood and Russian heat wave:Teleconnection of hydrometeorological extremes. J. Hydromet., 13: 392-403.
105. Lavers, D. A., Allan, R., Wood, E., et al. 2011. Winter floods in Britain are connected to atmospheric rivers. Geophys. Res. Lett., 38: L23803, DOI:10.1029/2011GL049783.
106. Leigh, E. G., Jr. 1975. Structure and climate in tropical rain forest. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Systematics, 6: 67-86
107. Linkin, M. E. and Nigam, S. 2008, The North Pacific Oscillation-West Pacific teleconnection pattern: Mature-phase structure and winter impacts. J. Climate, 21: 1979-97.
108. Lockwood, M., Harrison, R. G., Woolings, T., and Solanki, S.K. 2010. Are cold winters in Europe associated with low solar activity? Env. Res. Lett., 5: n.p.
109. Lowry, W. P. 1967. Weather and life: An Introduction to Biometeorology. New York:Academic Press. 305 pp.
110. Mann, M. E., Bradley, R. S., and Hughes, M. K. 1999. Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the past millennium: Inferences, uncertainties, and limitations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26: 759-62.
111. Mann, M. E., Zhang, Z., Rutherford, S., et al. 2009. Global signatures and dynamical origins of the Little Ice Age and Medieval Climate Anomaly. Science 326(5957): 1256-60.
112. Mantua, N. 2002. The Pacific decadal oscillation. J. Phys. Oceanog., 58: 35-44.
113. Marengo, J. A., Liebmann, B., Grimm, M. A., et al. 2010. Recent developments on the South American monsoon system. Int. J. Climatol., 30: DOI: 10.1002/joc.2254.
114. McGuffie, K. and Henderson-Sellers, A. 2005. A Climate Modelling Primer. 3rd edn. Chichester: Wiley.
115. Melles, M., Brigham-Grette, J., Minyuk, P. S., et al. 2012. 2.8 million years of Arctic climate change from Lake El’gygytgyn, NE Russia. Science, 337(6092): 315-20.
116. Meng, Q.-J., Latif, M., Park, W., Keenlyside, N., Semenov, V., and Martin, T. 2012. Twentieth century Walker circulation change: Data analysis and model experiments. Clim. Dynam., 38: 1757-73.
117. Mildrexler, D. J., Zhao, M. S., and Running, S. W. 2011. Satellite finds highest land surface skin temperature on Earth. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 92(7): 855-60.
118. Miller, G. H., Geirsdóttir, A., Zhong, Y., et al. 2012. Abrupt onset of the Little Ice Age triggered by volcanism and sustained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39: L02708.
119. Mo, K. C. and White, G. H. 1985. Teleconnection patterns in the Southern Hemisphere. Mon. Wea. Rev., 113: 22-37.
120. Moses, T., Kiladis, G. N., Diaz, H. F., and Barry, R. G. 1987. Characteristics and frequency of reversals in mean sea level pressure in the North Atlantic sector and their relationship to long-term temperature trends. J. Climatol., 7: 13-30.
121. Neiman, P. J. and Shapiro, M.A, 1993. The life cycle of an extratropical marine cyclone. Part I: Frontal-cyclone evolution and thermodynamic air-sea interactions. Mon. Wea. Rev., 121: 2174.
122. Newell, R. E. and Zhu, Y. 1994. Tropospheric rivers: A one-year record and a possible application to ice core data. Geophys. Res. Lett., 21: 113-16.
123. Oke, T. R. 1978. Boundary Layer Climates. London: Methuen. 272 pp.
124. Oliver, J. E. (ed.) 2005. Encyclopedia of World Climatology. New York: Springer. 854 pp.
125. Osczevski, R. and Bluestein, M. 2005. The new Wind Chill Equivalent Temperature chart. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 86: 1453-8.
126. Palmén, E. 1951. The role of atmospheric disturbances in the general circulation. Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 77: 337-54.
127. Parthasarathy, B., Munot, A. A., and Kothawale, D. R. 1994. All-India monthly and seasonal rainfall series: 1871-1993. Theoret. Appl. Climatol., 9: 217-24.
128. Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L., and McMahon, T. A. 2007. Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 11: 1633-44.
129. Penman, H. L. 1963. Vegetation and Hydrology. Farnham Royal: Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux.
130. Perry, A. H. and Barry, R. G. 1973. Recent temperature changes due to changes in the frequency and average temperature of weather types over the British Isles. Meteorol. Mag., 102: 73-82.
131. Peterson, T. C., Stott, P. A., and Herring, S. 2012. Explaining extreme events of 2011 from a climate perspective. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 93(7): 1041-67.
132. Philipp, A., Bartholy, J., Beck, C., et al. 2010. Cost733cat: A database of weather and circulation type classifications. Phys. Chem. Earth, 35: 36-73.
133. Plaut, G., Ghil, M., and Vautard, R. 1995. Interannual and interdecadal variability in 335 years of Central England temperatures. Science, 268: 710-13.
134. Pokhrel, Y. N., Yeh, P. J., Oki, T., Yamada, T. J., Hanasaki, N., Kanae, S. 2012. Model estimates of sea-level change due to anthropogenic impacts on terrestrial water storage. Nature Geosci., 5: 389-92.
135. Ralph, F., Neiman, P., and Wick, G. 2004. Satellite and CALJET aircraft observations of atmospheric rivers over the eastern North Pacific Ocean during the winter of 1997/98. Mon. Wea. Rev., 132: 1721-45.
136. Ramirez-Villegas, J. and Challinor, A. 2012. Assessing relevant climate data for agricultural applications. Agric. Forest Met., 161: 26-45.
137. Ratcliffe, R. A. S. and Murray, R. 1970. New lag-associations between North Atlantic sea temperature and European pressure applied to long-range weather forecasting. Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 96: 1226-46
138. Raymo, M. E. and Mitrovica, J. X. 2012. Collapse of polar ice sheets during the stage 11 interglacial. Nature, 483: 453-6.
139. Renssen, H., Seppä, H., Crosta, X., Goosse, H., and Roche, D. M. 2012. Global characterization of the Holocene Thermal Maximum. Quatern. Sci. Rev., 48: 7-19.
140. Riehl, H. 1962. Jet Streams of the Atmosphere. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University.
141. Robinson, A., Calov, R., and Ganopolski, A. 2012. Multistability and critical thresholds of the Greenland ice sheet. Nat. Clim. Change, 2: 429-32.
142. Roche, M. A., Bourges, J. C., and Mattos, R. 1992. Climatology and hydrology of the Lake Titicaca basin. In: Dejoux, C and Iltis, A. (eds.), Lake Titicaca: A Synthesis of Limnological Knowledge. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, pp. 63-83.
143. Rodda, J. C. and Dixon, H. 2012. Rainfall measurement revisited. Weather, 66(5): 131-6.
144. Rowlands, D. J., Frame, D., Aina, T., et al. 2012. Broad range of 2050 warming from an observationally constrained large climate model ensemble. Nat. Geosci, 5(4): 256-60.
145. Ryu, Y.-H. and Baik, J.-J. 2012. Quantitative analysis of factors contributing to urban heat island intensity. J. Appl. Met. Climatol., 54: 842-54.
146. Satyamurty, P., Nobre, C. A., and Silva Dias, P. L. 1998. The climate of South America. In:Karoly, D. J. and Vincent, D. G. (eds.), Meteorology of the Southern Hemisphere. Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society, pp. 119-39.
147. Sellers, P. J., Hall, F., Kelly, R., et al. 1997. BOREAS in 1997: Experiment overview, scientific results, and future directions. J. Geophys. Res., 102(D24): 28731-69.
148. Seneviratne, S. I., Corti, T., Davin, E., et al. 2010. Investigating soil moisture-climate interactions in a changing climate: A review. Earth Sci. Rev., 99: 129-61.
149. Serreze, M. C. and Barry, R. G. 2011. Processes and impacts of Arctic amplification: A research synthesis. Global Planet. Change, 77: 85-96.
150. Serreze, M. C., Lynch, A. H., and Clark, M. P. 2010. The Arctic frontal zone as seen in the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis. J. Climate, 14: 1550-67.
151. Shakun, J. D., et al. 2012. Global warming preceded by increasing carbon dioxide concentration during the last deglaciation. Nature, 484, DOI:10.1038/nature10915.
152. Sheridan, S. C. 2002. The redevelopment of a weather-type classification scheme for North America. Int. J. Climatol., 23: 51-68.
153. Sheridan, S. C. and Lee, C. C. 2010. Synoptic climatology and the General Circulation Model. Progr. Phys. Geog., 34: 101-9.
154. Sheridan, S. C. and Lee, C. C. 2012. Synoptic climatology and the analysis of atmospheric teleconnections. Progr. Phys. Geog., 36: 548-56.
155. Silva Dias, M. A. F., Rutledge, S., Kabat, P., et al. 2002. Cloud and rain processes in a biosphere-atmosphere interaction context in the Amazon region. J. Geophys. Res., 107 (D20): 8072.
156. Simard, M., Pinto, N., Fisher, J. B., and Baccini, A. 2011. Mapping forest canopy height globally with spaceborne lidar. J. Geophys. Res., 116: G04021.
157. Slatyer, R. O. and McIlroy, I. C. 1961. Practical Microclimatology. Paris: UNESCO. 286 pp.
158. Slonosky, V. C., Jones, P. D., and Davies, T. D. 2000. Variability of the surface atmospheric circulation over Europe, 1774-1995. Int. J. Climatol., 20: 1875-97.
159. Solomon, S., Qin, D.-H., Manning, M., et al. (eds.) 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 996 pp.
160. Stevens, B. and Bony, S. 2013. Water in the atmosphere. Physics Today, 66(6): 29-34.
161. Stewart, I. D. and Oke, T. R. 2012. Local climate zones for urban temperature studies. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 93: 1879-900.
162. Stolle, H. J. and Bryson, R. 1975. Climatic Change and the Gulf Stream. Madison, WI:Department of Meteorology, University of Wisconsin.
163. Strangeways, I. 2003. Measuring the Natural Environment. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 534 pp.
164. Terjung, W. H. 1968. World patterns of the distribution of the monthly comfort index. Int. J. Biomet., 12: 119-51.
165. Teuling, A. J., Seneviratne, S. I., Stöckli, R., et al. 2010. Contrasting response of European forest and grassland energy exchange to heatwaves. Nat. Geosci., 3: 722-27.
166. Thompson, D. W. J. and Wallace, J. M. 2001. Regional climate impacts of the Northern Hemisphere Annular Mode and associated climate trends. Science, 293(5527): 85-9.
167. Thornthwaite, C. W. 1948. An approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geog. Rev., 38: 55-94.
168. Thornthwaite, C.W. and Mather, J. R. 1955. The water balance. Publ. Climatol., 8(1): 1-104.
169. Trenberth, K. E. 2013. The new normal. GEWEX News, World Climate Research Programme, 23(1): 2-3.
170. Trenberth, K. E. and Fasullo, J. T. 2012. Atmospheric moisture transport from ocean to land in reanalyses. GEWEX News, World Climate Research Programme, 22(1): 8-10.
171. Trenbeth, K. E. and Shea, D. J. 1987. On the evolution of the Southern Oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115: 3077-96.
172. Trewartha, G. T. 1961. The Earth’s Problem Climates. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. 334 pp.
173. Tucker, G. B. and Barry, R. G. 1984. Climate of the North Atlantic Ocean. In van Loon, H. (ed.), Climates of the Oceans: World Survey of Climatology. Vol. 15. Amsterdam:Elsevier, pp. 193-262.
174. Tuller, S. E. 1968. World distribution of mean monthly and annual precipitable water. Mon. Wea. Rev., 96: 785-97.
175. United States Committee for the Global Atmospheric Research Program. 1975. Understanding Climatic Change: A Program for Action. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 239 pp.
176. US Arctic Research Commission. 2003. Climate Change, Permafrost, and Impacts on Civil Infrastructure. Arlington, VA: US Arctic Research Commission. 72 pp.
177. van Heerden, J. and Taljaard, J. J. 1998. Meteorology of the tropics: Africa and surrounding waters. In: Karoly, D. J. and Vincent, D. G. (eds.), Meteorology of the Southern Hemisphere. Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society, pp. 141-74.
178. Van Loon, H. 1967. The half-yearly oscillations in middle and high southern latitudes and the coreless winter. J. Atmos. Sci., 24: 472-86.
179. Van Loon, H. 1984. The Southern Oscillation. Part III: Associations with the trades and with the trough in the westerlies of the South Pacific Ocean. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112: 947-54.
180. Vera, C., Higgins, W., Amador, J., et al. 2006. Toward a unified view of the American monsoon systems. J. Climate, 19: 4977-5000.
181. Vincent, D. G. 1998. Meteorology of the tropics: Pacific Ocean. In Karoly, D. J. and Vincent, D. G. (eds.), Meteorology of the Southern Hemisphere. Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society, pp. 101-17.
182. Waliser, D. E. and Gautier, C. 1993. A satellite-derived climatology of the ITCZ. J. Climate, 6:2162-74.
183. Walker, G. T. 1924. Correlations in seasonal variations of weather. Mem. Indian Met. Dept., 24: 275-33.
184. Wallace, J. M. and Gutzler, D. S. 1981. Teleconnections in the geopotential height field during the Northern Hemisphere winter. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109: 784-812.
185. Wang, K.-C. and Dickinson, R. E. 2012. A review of global terrestrial evapotranspiration:Observation, modeling, climatology, and climatic variability, Rev. Geophys., 50, DOI:10.1029/2011RG000373.
186. Warner, T. T. 2004. Desert Meteorology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 612 pp.
187. Wienert, U. and Kuttler, W. 2005. The dependence of the urban heat island intensity on latitude: A statistical approach. Met. Zeit., 14: 677-86.
188. Wendland, W. M. and Bryson, E. A. 1981. Northern Hemisphere airstream regions. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109: 255-70.
189. Whittaker, L.M. and Horn, L. H. 1984. Northern Hemisphere extratropical cyclone activity for four mid-season months. J. Climatol., 4: 297-310.
190. Wild, M. 2012. Enlightening global dimming and brightening. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 93: 27-37.
191. Williams, C. A., Schwalm, C., Hasler, N., et al. 2012. Climate and vegetation controls on the surface water balance: Synthesis of evapotranspiration measured across a global network of flux towers. Water Resour. Res., 48: W06523.
192. Wolff, G. and Gleick, P. H. 2002. A soft path for water. In The World’s Water 2002-2003. Washington, DC: Island Press, pp. 1-32.
193. Wu, L.-X., Cai, W., Zhang, L., et al. 2012. Enhanced warming over the global subtropical western boundary currents. Nature Clim. Change, 2: 161-6.
194. Wyrtki, K. 1982: The Southern Oscillation, ocean-atmosphere interaction and El Niño. J. Marine Technol. Soc., 16: 3-10.
195. Wyrtki, K. 1985. The Global Climate System: A Critical Review of the Climate System 1982-1984. Geneva: WMO.
196. Yarnal, B. 1993. Synoptic Climatology in Environmental Analysis: A Primer. London:Bellhaven Press. 195 pp.
197. Zalasiewicz, J., Williams, M., Haywood, A. M., and Ellis, M. 2011. The Anthropocene:A new epoch of geological time? Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A., 369: 835-41.
198. Zhou, S.-T., L’Heureux, M., Weaver, S., and Kumar, A. 2012. A composite study of the MJO influence on the surface air temperature and precipitation over the Continental United States. Clim. Dynam., 38: 1459-71.
199. Zhu, Y. and Newell, R. E. 1998. A proposed algorithm for moisture fluxes from atmospheric rivers. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126: 725-35.