EU-Egypt Rapprochement Post-2013: A Play in Five Acts

European Foreign Affairs Review

Volumn 24, Issue 4, 2019, Pages 491-512

  Achrainer, Christian ^a  

^a PHILIPPS UNIVERSITY MARBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85129774758     PISSN: 13846299     EISSN: 18758223     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.54648/EERR2019039     Document Type: Article

References (83)

1. See e.g. N. Abdalla, The ENP Between Ambitions and Delusions: Analysing Europe's Misconceptions in Supporting Democratisation in Egypt, 32 Papers IEMed (2016);
2. R. Balfour, Human Rights and Democracy in EU Foreign Policy: The Cases of Ukraine and Egypt (Routledge, 2012);\
3. M. Comelli, Dynamics and Evolution of the EU-Egypt Relationship Within the ENP Framework, Documenti IAI 10/02 (2010);
4. T. Demmelhuber, EU-Mittelmeerpolitik und der Reformprozess in Ägypten: Von der Partnerschaft zur Nachbarschaft (2009);
5. B. İşleyen, The European Union and Neoliberal Governmentality: Twinning in Tunisia and Egypt, 21(3) Eur. J. Int'l Rel. 672-690 (2015);
6. İ. Aşkar Karakir, Limits of EU Democracy Promotion in the Arab Middle East: The Cases of Egypt and Morocco, 10 Rev. Int'l L. & Pol. 33-68 (2014);
7. R. Roccu, Egypt's Asymmetric Integration in the EU: The Making (and Unmaking) of a Neoliberal Borderland? EUI Working Papers 32 (2015).
8. See e.g. M. Fikry Abdel-Samei, The European Union's Public Diplomacy Towards the Arab Spring: The Case of Egypt, 17 The Hague J. Dipl. 111-138 (2015);
9. P. Bauer, The Transition of Egypt in 2011: A New Springtime for the European Neighbourhood Policy?, 12(4) Perspectives Eur. Pol. & Soc'y. 420-439 (2011);
10. M. Pinfari, The EU, Egypt and Morsi's Rise and Fall: 'Strategic Patience' and Its Discontents, 18(3) Med. Pol. 460-466 (2013);
11. P. Seeberg, The Arab Revolts and the Strategic Relations Between the EU and the MENA Region: The Case of Egypt (Center for Mellemoststudier 2012);
12. Y. El-Shimy & Anthony Dworkin, Egypt on the Edge: How Europe Can Avoid Another Crisis in Egypt, ECFR Pol'y Brief 218 (2017).
13. See e.g. E. Gad, Egyptian-European Relations: From Conflict to Cooperation, 3(2) Rev. Int'l Aff. 173-189 (2003);
14. B. Korany, A Case of Increasing Prominence: Egypt's Euro-Mediterranean Foreign Policy, in Mediterranean Policies from Above and Below (I. Schäfer & J.-R. Henry eds, Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft 2009).
15. C. Achrainer, Ägypten: Zurück in die Zukunft, in Außenpolitik mit Autokratien. Jahrbuch Internationale Politik, Band 30 (J. Braml, W. Merkel & E. Sandschneider eds, 2015).
16. European Commission & High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, A New Response to a Changing Neighbourhood, COM(2011) 303 (25 May 2011).
17. Human Rights Watch, Egypt: Rab'a Killings Likely Crimes Against Humanity (12 Aug. 2013), https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/08/12/egypt-rab-killings-likely-crimes-against-humanity (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
18. A. Boogaerts, C. Portela & E. Drieskens, One Swallow Does Not Make Spring: A Critical Juncture Perspective on the EU Sanctions in Response to the Arab Spring, 21(2) Med. Pol. 214 (2016).
19. The argument that regimes, especially in non-democratic settings, are designing their external alignments according to what they deem best to safeguard their survival is widespread in International Relations literature. According to David, threats to regime survival can be both domestic and external, and regimes will always respond to what they perceive as the most pressing challenge first. See S. David, Explaining Third World Alignment, 43(2) World Pol. 233-256 (1991).
20. Cited in S. Khalifa Isaac, The Egyptian Transition 2011-2013: How Strategic to Europe? 21(1) Middle East Pol'y 158-159 (2014).
21. D. Abaza, Egypt to 'Review' Foreign Aid, Rely on Gulf Assistance: Officials, Al Ahram Online (19 Aug. 2013), http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/79466.aspx (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
22. K. Kausch, Rethinking Relationships to Europe's South, FRIDE commentary 17, 7 (2014).
23. F. Kaczmarek, The Presidential Elections in Egypt: Assessment by European Parliament Observers, in Relations Between the European Union and Egypt After 2011: Determinants, Areas of Co-Operation and Prospects (A. Potyrała, B. Przyblyska-Maszner & S. Wojciechowski eds, Logos Verlag 2015).
24. Cited in D. Kirkpatrick, International Observers Find Egypt's Presidential Election Fell Short of Standards, The New York Times (29 May 2014), https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/30/world/middleeast/international-observers-find-fault-with-egypt-vote.html (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
25. Respective assessments are provided in, amongst others, Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2016 - Egypt Country Report, https://www.bti-project.org/en/reports/country-reports/detail/itc/egy/ity/2016/itr/mena/ (accessed 2 Aug. 2019);
26. Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2017 - Egypt Profile, https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2017/egypt (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
27. European Parliament, Freedom of Expression and Assembly in Egypt, P8_TA(2014)0007 (17 July 2014).
28. Egypt Summons EU Ambassadors over 'Negative' Statement, Ahram Online (17 Sept. 2014), http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/110977/Egypt/Politics-/Egypt-summons-EU-ambassa dors-over-negative-stateme.aspx (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
29. Cited in Reuters, EU Envoy in Egypt, Discusses Human Rights Conditions with Justice Minister, Egypt Independent (21 Oct. 2014), https://www.egyptindependent.com/eu-envoy-egypt-discusses-humanrights-conditions-justice-minister/ (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
30. T. Schumacher & C. Nitoiu, Russia's Foreign Policy Towards North Africa in the Wake of the Arab Spring, 20(1) Med. Pol. 101 (2015).
31. Sailer estimates that the KSA and the UAE provided between USD 25 billion and USD 41.5 billion in grants, loans and fuel products until the end of 2015. See M. Sailer, Changed Priorities in the Gulf: Saudi Arabia and the Emirates Rethink Their Relationship with Egypt, SWP Comments 8, 7 (2016).
32. E. Aoun & T. Kellner, The Crises in the Middle East: A Window of Opportunity for Rising China, 14(2) Eur. J. East Asian Stud., 198 (2015).
33. State Information Service, Sisi Discusses in Italy Partnership with EU (25 Nov. 2014), http://sis.gov.eg/Story/83984?lang=en-us (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
34. Cited in D. Ezzat, From Rome to Paris: El-Sisi Looks to Europe, Ahram Online (27 Nov. 2014), http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/116637/Egypt/Politics-/From-Rome-to-Paris-ElSisilooks-to-Europe.aspx (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
35. European Commission & High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Implementation of the European Neighbourhood Policy in Egypt: Progress in 2014 and Recommendations for Actions, SWD(2015) 65 final (25 Mar. 2015).
36. European Parliament Calls on Egypt to Release all Political Detainees, Ahram Online (16 Jan. 2015), http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/120440/Egypt/Politics-/European-Parliament-calls-onEgypt-to-release-all-.aspx (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
37. Cited in State Information Service, FM Deputy Minister for Human Rights Meets EU Officials (25 Jan. 2015), http://sis.gov.eg/Story/88169?lang=en-us (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
38. European Commission & High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Towards a New European Neighbourhood Policy, JOIN(2015) 6 final (4 Mar. 2015).
39. State Information Service, FM Urges New Neighborhood Policy with EU (14 Apr. 2015), http://sis.gov.eg/Story/92022?lang=en-us (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
40. Cited in A. Nader, Egypt Expresses 'Grave Concern' for Refugees in Europe but Faces Its Own Criticisms, Daily News Egypt (5 Sept. 2015), https://dailynewsegypt.com/2015/09/05/egypt-expresses-graveconcern-for-refugees-in-europe-but-faces-its-own-criticisms/ (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
41. Cited in A. Nader, Egypt's Foreign Ministry Launches Another Fiery Shot at Europe on Refugees, Daily News Egypt (8 Sept. 2015), https://dailynewsegypt.com/2015/09/08/egypts-foreign-ministrylaunches-another-fiery-shot-at-europe-on-refugees/ (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
42. European Police Office, European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TE-SAT) (2016).
43. Vision of Humanity, Global Terrorism Index: Database, http://visionofhumanity.org/indexes/terrorismindex/ (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
44. G. Prodhan, Siemens Signs 8 Billion Euro Power Deal with Egypt, Reuters (3 June 2015), https://www.reuters.com/article/siemens-egypt-power/update-1-siemens-signs-8-billion-euro-power-deal-withegypt-idUSL5N0YP41Z20150603, (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
45. ENI, Eni Discovers a Supergiant Gas Field in the Egyptian Offshore, the Largest Ever Found in the Mediterranean Sea, Press Release, (Aug. 2015), https://www.eni.com/en_IT/media/2015/08/eni-dis covers-a-supergiant-gas-field-in-the-egyptian-offshore-the-largest-ever-found-in-the-mediterraneansea (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
46. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Databases, https://www.sipri.org/databases (accessed 21 Feb. 2019).
47. For an analysis of the economic crisis and its impact, see R. Springborg, Egypt's Economic Transition: Challenges and Prospects, in Combining Economic and Political Development: The Experience of MENA (Giacomo Luciani ed., Brill/Nijhoff 2017).
48. S. Marshall, The Egyptian Armed Forces and the Remaking of an Economic Empire, Carnegie Paper (2015).
49. D. Shehata, Sixty Years of Egyptian Politics - What has Changed?, 29 The Cairo Rev. Glob. Aff. 103 (2018).
50. This argument follows Brand's concept of budget security. She argues that 'although the requirements for state building and regime survival are complex, in the crudest of terms, no state, regime, or political leadership can long survive without money. The ruling elite must ensure that it has the funds needed to direct policy and remain in control'. See L. A. Brand, Economics and Shifting Alliances: Jordan's Relations with Syria and Iraq 1975-81, 26(3) Int'l J. Mid. East Stud. 394 (1994).
51. UN Comtrade, Data, https://comtrade.un.org/data/ (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
52. European Investment Bank, Financed Projects: Egypt, http://www.eib.org/en/projects/loan/list/index.htm?from=®ion=§or=&to=&country=EG (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
53. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Data on the EBRD's Work in Egypt, https://www.ebrd.com/egypt-data.html (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
54. F. Mogherini, Remarks by High Representative/Vice-President Federica Mogherini Following the Meeting with Sameh Shoukry, Egyptian Minister for Foreign Affairs, UNIQUE ID: 151103_02 (2 Nov. 2015).
55. State Information Service, FM: Egypt, EU Keen on Cementing Ties (3 Nov. 2015), http://sis.gov.eg/Story/97323?lang=en-us (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
56. F. Mogherini, Remarks by the High Representative/Vice-President Federica Mogherini on the Occasion of the Signature of the Egypt Natural Gas Connection Project Financing Agreement, UNIQUE ID: 151103_01 (3 Nov. 2015).
57. European Union, Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe, 25 (June 2016).
58. Ministry of Planning, Monitoring and Administrative Reform, Sustainable Development Strategy: Vision2030, 13 (Mar. 2016).
59. European Parliament, Ibrahim Halawa Potentially Facing the Death Penalty, P8_TA(2015)0463 (17 Dec. 2015).
60. Cited in Middle East News Agency, Egypt Rejects European Parliament Calls for Halawa Release, Egypt Independent (18 Dec. 2015), https://www.egyptindependent.com/egypt-rejects-european-parliament-calls-halawa-release/ (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
61. European Parliament, Egypt, Notably the Case of Giulio Regeni, P8_TA(2016)0084 (10 Mar. 2016).
62. Cited in Ahram Online, Egypt Foreign Ministry Criticises EU Parliament's 'Undocumented' Claims of Rights Abuses (11 Mar. 2016), http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/190708/Egypt/Politics-/Egypt-foreign-ministry-criticises-EU-parliaments-u.aspx (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
63. Confidential conversation with an EEAS official (Cairo, 6 Mar. 2019). This point was also highlighted by Fabrice Leggeri, head of FRONTEX, in an interview on 28 June 2016. See ANR, DPA, AFP & Reuters, Frontex-Chef sieht neuen Hotspot in Ägypten, Spiegel online, 28 June 2016, http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/fluechtlinge-frontex-chef-leggeri-sieht-neuen-hotspot-in-aegypten-a-1100138.html (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
64. N. Fried & P.-A. Krüger, EU befürchtet Massenflucht aus Ägypten, sz.de (3 Sept. 2016), https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/nach-bootsunglueck-mit-vielen-toten-eu-befuerchtet-massenflucht-ausaegypten-1.3174453 (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
65. T. Sakr, Egypt Expresses Concerns Over EU-Turkey Deal on Refugees, Daily News Egypt (23 Mar. 2016), https://dailynewsegypt.com/2016/03/23/egypt-expresses-concerns-eu-turkey-deal-refugees/ (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
66. N. Nielsen, Egypt Blames EU-Turkey Deal for Refugee Spike, EU-Observer (31 Aug. 2016), https://euobserver.com/migration/134829 (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
67. Cited in State Information Service, FM Meets with Chairman of EU Parliament's Committee for Relations with Mashreq Countries (3 Nov. 2016), http://sis.gov.eg/Story/106591?lang=en-us (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
68. Cited in Ministry of Investment and International Cooperation, Enhancing Developmental Cooperation with the EU Parliament's Delegation for Relations with Mashreq Countries (2 Nov. 2016), http://www.miic.gov.eg/English/MediaCenter/News/Pages/Enhancing-Developmental-C.aspx (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
69. Cited in State Information Service, House Speaker Urges European Parliament to Focus on Terrorism, Extremism Issues (2 Nov. 2016), http://sis.gov.eg/Story/106585?lang=en-us (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
70. European External Action Service, EP Delegation Encourages Stronger Ties Between Egypt and the European Union, UNIQUE ID: 161103_9 (3 Nov. 2016).
71. State Information Service, International Cooperation Min. Praises Egypt-EU Relations (20 Dec. 2016), http://sis.gov.eg/Story/107200?lang=en-us (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
72. Cited in European Commission, The EU and Egypt to Foster Sustainable Economic Development in the Country, IP/16/4481 (20 Dec. 2016).
73. State Information Service, FM Meets EU's Foreign Ministers in European Commission HQ (7 Mar. 2017), http://sis.gov.eg/Story/108115?lang=en-us (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
74. Confidential conversation with an EEAS official (via telephone, 9 Mar. 2019). See also M. Mecky, Egypt, EU Launch New Phase of Strategic Partnership, Ahram Online (7 Mar. 2017), http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/0/259463/Egypt/0/Egypt-EU-launch-new-phase-of-strategic-part nershi.aspx (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
75. European External Action Service, Statement by the Spokesperson on the Decision by an Egyptian Court to Freeze Assets of Two Prominent Human Rights Organizations and their Directors, UNIQUE ID: 170112_4 (12 Jan. 2017).
76. European External Action Service, Statement by the Spokesperson on the New NGO Law in Egypt, UNIQUE ID: 170531_5 (31 May 2017).
77. European Commission & High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Report on EU-EGYPT Relations in the Framework of the Revised ENP, SWD(2017) 271 final 2 (13 July 2017).
78. F. Mogherini, Remarks by High Representative/Vice-President Federica Mogherini at the Press Conference Following the 7th EU-Egypt Association Council, UNIQUE ID: 170725_17 (25 July 2017).
79. Arab Republic of Egypt, Statement by the Arab Republic of Egypt on the Occasion of the Seventh Meeting of the Egypt-EU Association Council 6 (25 July 2017), https://www.mfa.gov.eg/Arabic/MediaCenter/News/Documents/Egypt%20-%20EU%20Statement%20(2).pdf (accessed 2 Aug. 2019).
80. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, For the First Time in Seven Years: Egypt-EU Association Council Convenes under the Chairmanship of Shoukry and Mogherini (24 July 2017), https://www.mfa.gov.eg/English/MediaCenter/News/Pages/partnershipstatement257.aspx (accessed 5 May 2019).
81. F. Mogherini & S. Shoukry, Joint Statement Following the 7th Session of the EU-Egypt Association Council, 496/17 (25 July 2017).
82. C. Achrainer, An Erring Mediterranean Policy, DGAPstandpunkt 1 (2014);
83. J. Völkel, More for More, Less for Less - More or Less: A Critique of the EU's Arab Spring Response à la Cinderella, 19(2) Eur. For. Aff. Rev. 263-281 (2014).