Risk and Protective Factors of Adolescent Drug Use: Implications for Prevention Programs

Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 265-287

  Brook, Judith S ^a   Brook, David W ^a   Richter, Linda ^b   Whiteman, Martin ^a  

^a MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b Yale School of Medicine

Author keywords

Adolescent Drug; Adolescent Psychiatry; Adolescent Substance; Prevention Program; Protective Factor

Indexed keywords

EID: 85126245707     PISSN: 13896903     EISSN: 2542839X     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/0-387-35408-5_13     Document Type: Chapter

References (122)

1. Bachman, J. G., Wadsworth, K. N., O’Malley, P. M., Johnston, L. D., & Schulenberg, J. E. (1997). Smoking, drinking, and drug use in young adulthood. The impacts of new freedoms and new responsibilities. NJ: Erlbaum.
2. Bailey, S. L., & Hubbard, R. L. (1990). Developmental variation in the context of marijuana initiation among adolescents. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31, 587-593.
3. Bandura (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
4. Barnes, G. M., Farrell, M. P., & Banerjee, S. (1995). Family influences on alcohol abuse and other problem behaviors among black and white adolescents in a general population sample. In G. M. Boyd, J. Howard, & R. A. Zucker (Eds.), Alcohol problems among adolescents: Current directions in prevention research (pp 13-31). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
5. Berrueta-Clement, J. R., Schweinhart, L. J., Barnett, W. S., Epstein, A. S., & Weikart, D. P. (1984). Changed lives: The effects of the Perry Preschool Program on youths that are through age 19. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press.
6. Black, G. S. (1989). The attitudinal basis of drug use-1987 and changing attitudes toward drug use-1988: Reports from the Media Advertising partnership for a Drug-Free America, Inc. Rochester, NY: Gordon S. Black.
7. Botvin, G. J. (1986). Substance abuse prevention research: Recent developments and future directions. Journal of School Health, 56, 369-374.
8. Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Botvin, E. M., & Diaz, T. (1995). Long-term follow-up results of a randomized drug abuse prevention trial in a white middle-class population. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1106-1112.
9. Braungart-Rieker, J., Rende, R. D., Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., & Fulker, D. W. (1995). Genetic mediation of longitudinal associations between family environment and childhood behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 233-245.
10. Brook, D. W., Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Win, P. T., Gordon-Maloul, C., Roberto, J., Masci, J. R., Amundsen, F., & de Catalogne, J. (1997). Psychosocial risk factors for HIV transmission in female drug abusers. American Journal on Addictions, 6(2), 124-134.
11. Brook, J. S., Balka, E. B., Gursen, M., Brook, D. W., Shapiro, J., & Cohen, P. (1997). Young adults’ drug use: A 17-year longitudinal inquiry of antecedents. Psychological Reports, 80, 1235-1251.
12. Brook, J. S., Brook, D. W., De La Rosa, M., Duque, L. F., Rodriguez, E., Montoya, I. D., Min, D., & Whiteman, M. (1998). Pathways to marijuana use among adolescents: Cultural/ecological family, peer, and personality influences. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37(7), 759-766.
13. Brook, J. S., Brook, D. W., & Whiteman, M. (2000). The influence of maternal smoking during pregnancy on the toddler’s negativity. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 154, 381-385.
14. Brook, J. S., Brook, D. W., Whiteman, M., Gordon, A. S., & Cohen, P. (1990). The psychosocial etiology of adolescent drug use and abuse. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 116(2).
15. Brook, J. S., & Cohen, P. (1992). A developmental perspective on drug use and delinquency. In J. McCord (Ed.), Advances in criminological theory: Vol. 3: Crime facts, fictions, and theory (pp 231-251). New Brunswick, NJ: Transactions Publishers.
16. Brook, J. S., Cohen, P., & Brook, D. W. (1998). Longitudinal study of co-occurring psychiatric disorders and substance use. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 322-330.
17. Brook J. S., Gordon, A. S., & Brook, D. W. (1987). Fathers and daughters: Their relationship and personality characteristics associated with the daughter’s smoking behavior. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 148(1), 31-44.
18. Brook, J. S., Gordon, A. S., Whiteman, M., & Cohen, P. (1986). Some models and mechanisms for explaining the impact of maternal and adolescent characteristics on adolescent stage of drug use. Developmental Psychology, 22, 460-467.
19. Brook, J. S., & Newcomb, M. D. (1995). Childhood aggression and unconventionality: Impact on later academic achievement, drug use, and workforce involvement. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 4, 393-410.
20. Brook, J. S., Nomura, C., & Cohen, P. (1989). Prenatal, perinatal, and early childhood risk factors and drug involvement in adolescence. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 115(2), 221-241.
21. Brook, J. S., Richter, L., & Whiteman, M. (2000). Effects of parent personality, upbringing, and drug use on the parent-child attachment relationship. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(2), 240-248.
22. Brook, J. S., Tseng, L. J., & Whiteman, M. (1998). Three-generation study: Intergenerational continuities and discontinuities and their impact on the toddler’s anger. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 124(3), 335-353.
23. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Balka, E. B., Win, P. T., & Gursen, M. D. (1997). African-American and Puerto Rican drug use: A longitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(9), 1260-1268.
24. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Balka, E. B., Win, P. T., & Gursen, M. D. (1998). Similar and different precursors to drug use and delinquency among African-Americans and Puerto Ricans. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 159(1), 13-29.
25. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Brook, D. W., & Gordon, A. S. (1991). Sibling influences on adolescent drug use: Older brothers on younger brothers. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(6), 958-966.
26. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., & Finch, S. (1993). The role of mutual attachment in adolescent drug use: A longitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(5), 982-989.
27. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Finch, S., & Cohen, P. (1995). Aggression, intrapsychic distress, and drug use: Antecedents and intervening processes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(8), 1076-1084.
28. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Finch, S., & Cohen, P. (1996). Young adult drug use and delinquency: Childhood antecedents and adolescent mediators. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(12), 1584-1592.
29. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Finch, S., & Cohen, P. (2000). Longitudinally foretelling drug use in the late twenties: Adolescent personality and social environmental antecedents. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 161(1), 37-51.
30. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., & Gordon, A. S. (1983). Stages of drug use in adolescence: Personality, peer, and family correlates. Developmental Psychology, 19, 269-277.
31. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Gordon, A. S., & Brook, D. W. (1986). Father-daughter identification and its impact on her personality and drug use. Developmental Psychology, 22, 743-748.
32. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Gordon, A. S., & Brook, D. W. (1983). Paternal correlates of adolescent marijuana use in the context of the mother-son and parental dyads. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 108, 197-213.
33. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Gordon, A. S., & Cohen, P. (1986). Dynamics of childhood and adolescent personality traits and adolescent drug use. Developmental Psychology, 22, 403-414.
34. Bukoski, W. J. (1986). School based substance abuse prevention: A review of research. In S. Griswold-Ezekoye, K. L. Kumpfer, & W. J. Bukoski (Eds.), Childhood and chemical abuse (pp 95-115). New York: Haworth.
35. Carter, D. J., & Wilson, R. (1991). Ninth annual status report: Minorities in higher education. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
36. Cloninger, C. R. (1987). Neurogenetic adaptive mechanisms in alcoholism. Science, 236, 410-416.
37. Cloninger, C. R., Bohman, N., & Sigvardsson, S. (1981). Inheritance of alcohol abuse: Cross-fostering analysis of adopted men. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 861-868.
38. Cohen, P., & Brook, J. S. (1987). Family factors related to the persistence of psychopathology in childhood and adolescence. Psychiatry, 50, 332-345.
39. Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (1992). A developmental and clinical model for the prevention of conduct disorders: The FAST Track program. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 509-527.
40. Conger, R. D., Reuter, M. R., & Conger, K. J. (1994). The family context of adolescent vulnerability and resilience to alcohol use and abuse. Sociological Studies of Children, 6, 55-86.
41. DeMarsh, J., & Kumpfer, K. L. (1986). Family-oriented interventions for the prevention of chemical dependency in children and adolescents. In A. Griswold-Ezekoye, K. L. Kumpfer, & W. J. Bukoski (Eds). Childhood and chemical abuse: Prevention and intervention (pp 117-151). New York: Haworth.
42. Dishion, T. J., Patterson, G. R., Stoolmiller, M., & Skinner, M. L. (1991). Family, school, and behavioral antecedents to early adolescent involvement with antisocial peers. Developmental Psychology, 27(1), 172-180.
43. Donovan, J. E. (1996). Problem-behavior theory and the explanation of adolescent marijuana use. Journal of Drug Issues, 26(3), 379-404.
44. Duncan, T. E., Duncan, S. C., & Hops, H. (1996). The role of parents and older siblings in predicting adolescent substance use: Modeling development via structural equation latent growth methodology. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 158-172.
45. Farrington, D. P. (1991). Childhood aggression and adult violence: Early precursors and later life outcomes. In D. J. Pepler and K. H. Rubin (Eds.). The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp 5-29). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
46. Felix-Ortiz, M., & Newcomb, M. D. (1992). Risk and protective factors for drug use among Latino and White adolescents. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science, 14, 291-309.
47. Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Lynskey, M. (1994). The childhood of multiple problem adolescents: A 15-year longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1123-1140.
48. Fletcher, A. C., Darling, N. E., & Steinberg, L. (1995). Parental monitoring and peer influences on adolescent substance use. In J. McCord (Ed.), Coercion and punishment in long-term perspectives (pp 259-271). New York: Cambridge University Press.
49. Gable, S., Belsky, J., & Crnic, K. (1992). Marriage, parenting, and child development: Progress and prospects. Special Issue: Diversity in contemporary family psychology. Journal of Family Psychology, 5, 276-294.
50. Glantz, M., & Pickens, R. (1992). Vulnerability to drug abuse. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
51. Grove, W., Eckert, E., Heston, L., Bouchard, T., Segal, N., & Lykken, D. (1990). Heritability of substance abuse and antisocial behavior: A study of monozygotic twins reared apart. Biological Psychiatry, 27, 1293-1304.
52. Hansen, W. B., Graham, J. W., Sobel, J. L., Shelton, D. R., Flay, B. R., & Johnson, C. A. (1987). The consistency of peer and parent influences on tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use among young adolescents. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 10, 559-579.
53. Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention, Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 64-105.
54. Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Morrison, D. M., O’Donnell, J., Abbott, R. D., & Day, L. E. (1992). The Seattle Social Development Project: Effects of the first four years on protective factors and problem behaviors. In J. McCord & R. Tremblay (Eds.), The prevention of antisocial behavior in children. New York: Guilford Press.
55. Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press.
56. Hops, H., Tildesley, E., Lichtenstein, E., Ary, D., & Sherman, L. (1990). Parent-adolescent problem-solving interactions and drug use. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 16, 239-258.
57. Hundleby, J. D., & Mercer, G. W. (1987). Family and friends as social environments and their relationship to young adolescents’ use of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 125-134.
58. Institute of Medicine (IOM) (1996). Pathways of addiction: Opportunities in drug abuse research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
59. Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. L. (1977). Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
60. Jessor, R., Van Den Bos, J., Vanderryn, J., Costa, F. M., & Turbin, M. S. (1995). Protective factors in adolescent problem behavior: Moderator effects and developmental change. Developmental Psychology, 31(6), 923-933.
61. Johnson, V., & Pandina, R. J. (1991). Effects of the family on adolescent substance use, delinquency, and coping styles. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 17, 71-88.
62. Johnston, L. D., Bachman, J. G., & O’Malley, P. M. (1981). Student drug use in America 1975-1981 (DHHS Publication No. ADM 82-1208). Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
63. Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. G. (1985). Use of licit and illicit drugs by American high school students: 1975-1984. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Drug Abuse.
64. Kagan, J. & Moss, H. A. (1962). Birth to maturity: A study in psychological development. New York: Wiley.
65. Kandel, D. B. (1996). The parental and peer contexts of adolescent deviance: An algebra of interpersonal influences. Journal of Drug Issues, 26(2), 289-315.
66. Kandel, D. B., & Andrews, K. (1987). Processes of adolescent socialization by parents and peers. International Journal of Addictions, 22, 319-342.
67. Kaplan, H. B. (1995). Drugs, crime, and other deviant adaptations. In H. B. Kaplan (Ed.), Drugs, crime, and other deviant adaptations (pp 3-46). New York: Plenum.
68. Kaplan, H. B. (1996). Empirical validation of the applicability of an integrative theory of deviant behavior to the study of drug use. Journal of Drug Issues, 26(2), 345-377.
69. Kessler, R. C., Nelson, C. B., McGonagle, K. A., Edlund, M. J., Frank, R. G., & Leaf, P. J. (1996). The epidemiology of co-occurring addictive and mental disorders: Implications for prevention and service utilization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, 17-30.
70. Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., Thornberry, T. P., Smith, C., & McDowall, D. (1996). Reciprocal causal relationships among drug use, peers, and beliefs: A five-wave panel model. Journal of Drug Issues, 26(2), 405-428.
71. Kumpfer, K. L. (1989). Prevention of alcohol and drug abuse: A critical review of risk factors and prevention strategies. In D. Shaffer, I. Philips, & N. B. Enzer (Eds.), Prevention of mental disorders, alcohol, and other drug use in children and adolescents. OSAP Prevention Monograph No. 2. Rockville, MD: Office of Substance Abuse Prevention.
72. Labouvie, E. (1996). Maturing out of substance use: Selection and self-correction. Journal of Drug Issues, 26(2), 457-476.
73. Liddle, H. A., & Dakof, G. A. (1995a). Family-based treatments for adolescent drug use: State of the science. In E. Rahdert & D. Czechowicz (Eds.), Adolescent drug abuse: Clinical assessment and therapeutic interventions (pp 218-254). NIDA Research Monograph No. 156, NIH Publication No. 95-3908. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
74. Liddle, H. A., & Dakof, G. A. (1995b). Efficacy of family therapy for drug abuse: Promising but not definitive. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 21, 511-544.
75. Liddle, H. A., Dakoff, G., Diamond, G., Holt, M., Arroyo, J., & Watson, M. (1992). The adolescent module in multidimensional family therapy. In J. W. Lawson & A. W. Lawson (Eds.) Adolescent Substance Abuse, etiology, treatment, and prevention. (pp 165-186). Rockville, MD: Aspen.
76. Loeber, R. (1991). Antisocial behavior: More enduring than changeable? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 393-397.
77. Loeber, R., & Dishion, T. J. (1983). Early predictors of male delinquency: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 68-99.
78. Loeber, R., & Dishion, T. J. (1987). Antisocial and delinquent youths: Methods for early identification. In J. D. Burchard & S. N. Burchard (Eds.), Primary prevention of psychopathology: Vol. 10. Prevention of delinquent behavior (pp 75-89). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
79. McDermott, D. (1984). The relationship of parental drug use and parent’s attitude concerning adolescent drug use. Adolescence, 19, 89-97.
80. Merikangas, K. R., Rounsaville, B. J., & Prusoff, B. A. (1992). Familial factors in vulnerability to substance abuse. In M. D. Glantz & R. W. Pickins, (Eds.), Vulnerability to drug abuse (pp 75-98). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.
81. Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674-701.
82. Newcomb, M. D., & Bentler, P. M. (1986). Substance use and ethnicity: Differential impact of peer and adult models. Journal of Psychology, 120, 83-95.
83. Newcomb, M. D., & Bentler, P. M. (1988). Consequences of adolescent drug use: Impact on the lives of young adults. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
84. Newcomb, M. D., & Felix-Ortiz, M. (1992). Multiple protective and risk factors for drug use and abuse: Cross-sectional and prospective findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 280-296.
85. O’Donnell, J. A., & Clayton, R. R. (1979). Determinants of early marijuana use. In G. M. Beschner & A. S. Friedman (Eds.), Youth drug abuse: Problems, issues, and treatment (pp 63-110). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
86. Oetting, E. R., & Beauvais, F. (1987a). Common elements in youth drug abuse: Peer clusters and other psychosocial factors. Journal of Drug Issues, 17(1&2), 133-151.
87. Oetting, E. R., & Beauvais, F. (1987b). Peer cluster theory, socialization characteristics and adolescent drug use: A path analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34(2), 205-213.
88. Oetting, E. R., & Beauvais, F. (1990). Adolescent drug use: Findings of national and local surveys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58(4), 385-394.
89. Oetting, E. R., & Donnermeyer, J. F. (1998). Primary socialization theory: The etiology of drug use and deviance. Part I. Substance Use and Misuse, 33(4), 995-1026.
90. Oetting, E. R., Donnermeyer, J. F., Deffenbacher, J. L. (1998). Primary socialization theory: The influence of the community on drug use and deviance. III. Substance Use and Misuse, 33, 1629-1665.
91. Oetting, E. R., Edwards, R. W., Kelly, K., & Beauvais, F. (1997). Risk and protective factors for drug use among rural American youth. In Z. Sloboda, G. Boyd, E. Robertson, & L. Beatty (Eds.), Rural substance abuse: State of knowledge and issues (NIDA Research Monograph). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
92. Oetting, E. R., & Lynch, R. S. (in press). Peers and the prevention of adolescent drug use. In W. J. Bukoski & Z. Sloboda (Eds.), Handbook for drug abuse prevention: Theory, science, and practice. New York: Plenum Press.
93. Pandina, R. J., & Johnson, V. L. (1999). Why people use, abuse, and become dependent on drugs: Progress toward a heuristic model. In M. D. Glantz & C. R. Hartel (Eds.). Drug abuse: Origins and interventions. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
94. Pandina, R., Labouvie, E., & White, H. (1984). Potential contribution of the life span developmental approach to the study of adolescent alcohol and drug use: The Rutgers Health and Human Development Project, a working model. Journal of Drug Issues, 14, 253-268.
95. Patterson, G., Chamberlain, P., & Reid, J. (1982). The comparative evaluation of a parent training program. Behavior Therapy, 13, 638-650.
96. Patterson, G., Reid, J., & Dishion, T. (1992). Antisocial boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
97. Penning, M., & Barnes, G. E. (1982). Adolescent marijuana use: A review. International Journal of Addictions, 17, 749-791.
98. Pentz, M. A., Dwyer, J., MacKinnon, D., Flay, B. R., Hansen, W. B., Wang, E. Y., & Johnson, C. A. (1989a). A multicommunity trial for primary prevention of adolescent drug abuse. Journal of the American Medical Association, 261, 3259-3266.
99. Pentz, M. A., Dwyer, J. H., MacKinnon, D. P., Flay, B. R., Hansen, W. B., Wang, E. Y. I., & Johnson, C. A. (1989b). The power of policy: Relationship of smoking policy to adolescent smoking. American Journal of Public Health, 79, 857-862.
100. Pentz, M. A., MacKinnon, D. P., Flay, B. R., Hansen, W. B., Johnson, C. A., & Dwyer, J. H. (1989). Primary prevention of chronic diseases in adolescence: Effects of the Midwestern Prevention project on tobacco use. American Journal of Epidemiology, 130, 713-724.
101. Perry, C. L., Kelder, S. H., Murray, D. M., & Kepp, K.-I. (1992). Community-wide smoking prevention: Long-term outcomes of the Minnesota Heart Health Program and the Class of 1989 Study. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 1210-1216.
102. Peterson, P. L., Hawkins, J. D., Abbott, R. D., & Catalano, R. F. (1995). Disentangling the effects of parental drinking, family management, and parental alcohol norms on current drinking by black and white adolescents. In G. M. Boyd, J. Howard, & R. A. Zucker (Eds.), Alcohol problems among adolescents; Current directions in prevention research (pp 35-59). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
103. Petraitis, J., Flay, B. R., & Miller, T. Q. (1995). Reviewing theories of adolescent substance use: Organizing pieces in the puzzle. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 67-86.
104. Riggs, P. D., Baker, S., Mikulich, S. K., Young, S. E., & Crowley, T. J. (1995). Depression in substance-dependent delinquents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(6), 764-771.
105. Robins, L. N. (1984). The natural history of adolescent drug use. American Journal of Public Health, 74, 656-657.
106. Robins, L. N., & McEvoy, L. (1990). Conduct problems as predictors of substance abuse. In L. Robins & M. Rutter (Eds.), Straight and devious pathways from childhood to adulthood (pp 242-258). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
107. Rohrbach, L. A., Hodgson, C. S., Broder, B. I., Flay, B. R., Hansen, W. B., & Pentz, M. A. (1995). Parental participation in drug abuse prevention: Results from the Midwestern Prevention Project. In G. M. Boyd, J. Howard, & R. A. Zucker (Eds), Alcohol problems among adolescents: Current directions in prevention research (pp 173-194). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
108. Rowe, D. C., Rodgers, J. L., & Meseck-Bushey, S. (1992). Sibling delinquency and the family environment: Shared and unshared influences. Child Development, 63, 59-67.
109. Rutter, M. (1980). Changing youth in a changing society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
110. Sampson, R. J. (1985). Neighborhood and crime: The structural determinants of personal victimization. Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency, 22, 7-40.
111. Selnow, G. W. (1987). Parent-child relationships and single and two parent families: Implications for substance usage. Journal of Drug Education, 17, 315-326.
112. Simcha-Fagen, O., Gersten, J. C., & Langner, T. (1986). Early precursors and concurrent correlates of illicit drug use in adolescents. Journal of Drug Issues, 16, 7-28.
113. Smith, B. E., & Davis, R. C. (1993). Successful community anti-crime programs: What makes them work? In: R. C. Davis, A. J. Lurgio, & D. P. Rosenbaum (Eds.), Drugs and the community: Involving community residents in combating the sale of illegal drugs (pp 123-137). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
114. Swaim, R. C., Oetting, E. R., Edwards, R. W., & Beauvais, F. (1989). The links from emotional distress to adolescent drug use: A path model. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 15(2), 153-172.
115. Szapocznik, J., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1999). An ecodevelopmental framework for organizing the influences on drug abuse: A developmental model of risk and protection. In M. D. Glantz & C. R. Hartel (Eds.) Drug abuse: Origins & interventions. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
116. Szapocznik, J., & Kurtines, W. M. (1989). Break-through in family therapy with drug abusing and problem youth. New York: Springer.
117. Tabakoff, B., Hoffman, P. L., Lee, J. M., Saito, T., Willard, B., & De Leon-Jones, F. (1988). Differences in platelet enzyme activity between alcoholics and nonalcoholics. New England Journal of Medicine, 318, 134-139.
118. Tremblay, R. E., McCord, J., Boileau, H., Leblanc, M., Gagnon, C., Charlebois, P., & Larivee, S. (1990 November). The Montreal prevention experiment: School adjustment and self-reported delinquency after three years of follow-up. Paper presented at the 42nd Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Baltimore, MD.
119. Warheit, G. J., Biafora, F. A., Zimmerman, R. S., Gil, A. G., Vega, W. A., & Apospori, E. (1995). Self-rejection/derogation, peer factors, and alcohol, drug, and cigarette use among a sample of Hispanic, African-American, and white non-Hispanic adolescents. International Journal of the Addictions, 30, 97-116.
120. Werner, E. E. (1989). High-risk children in young adulthood: A longitudinal study from birth to 32 years. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 72-81.
121. Wills, T. A., Mariani, J., & Filer, M. (1996). The role of family and peer relationships in adolescent substance use: In G. R. Pierce, B. R. Sarason, & I. G. Sarason (Eds.), Handbook of social support and the family (pp 521-549). New York: Plenum.
122. Zigler, E., Taussig, C., & Black, K. (1992). Early childhood intervention: A promising preventative for juvenile delinquency. American Psychologist, 47, 997-1006.