Leaching processes and evaluation tests for inorganic constituent release from cement-based matrices

Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 229-280

  Garrabrants, Andrew C ^a   Kosson, David S ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85057924132     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (225)

1. Conner, J.R., Chemical Fixation and Solidification of Hazardous Wastes, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1990.
2. Conner, J.R. and Hoeffner, S.L., The history of solidification stabilization technology, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 28, 325, 1998.
3. USEPA, Leachability Phenomena, EPA-SAB-EEC-92-003, USEPA Science Advisory Board, Washington, D.C., 1991.
4. USEPA, Waste Leachability: the Need for Review of Current Agency Procedures, EPA-SAB-EEC-COM-99-002, USEPA Science Advisory Board, Washington, D.C., 1999.
5. Kosson, D.S. et al., An integrated framework for evaluating leaching in waste management and utilization of secondary materials, Environmental Engineering Science 19, 159, 2002.
6. Lewin, K., Leaching tests for waste compliance and characterisation: recent practical experiences, The Science of The Total Environment 178, 85, 1996.
7. Glasser, F.P., Chemistry of cement-solidified waste forms, in Chemistry and Microstructure of Solidified Waste Forms, Spence, R.D., Ed., Lewis Publishers, Baton Rouge, LA, 1993, p.
8. Garrabrants, A.C., Sanchez, F., and Kosson, D.S., Changes in constituent equilibrium leaching and pore water characteristics of a Portland cement mortar as a result of carbonation, Waste Management 24, 19, 2004.
9. Kosson, D.S., van der Sloot, H.A., and Eighmy, T.T., An approach for estimation of contaminant release during utilization and disposal of municipal waste combustion residues, Journal of Hazardous Materials 47, 43, 1996.
10. van der Sloot, H.A., Comparison of the characteristic leaching behaviour of cements using standard (EN 196-1) cement-mortar and an assessment of their long-term environmental behaviour in construction products during service life and recycling, Cement and Concrete Research 30, 1079, 2000.
11. van der Sloot, H.A. et al., Approach towards international standardization: a concise scheme for testing of granular waste leachability, in Environmental Aspects of Construction with Waste Materials, Goumans, J.J.J.M., van der Sloot, H.A., and Aalbers, T.G., Eds., Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, 1994, p.
12. Stegemann, J.A. and Côté, P.L., Investigation of test methods for solidified waste evaluation — a cooperative program, EPS 3/HA/8, 1991.
13. Poon, C.-S. et al., Comparison of the strength and durability performance of normaland high-strength pozzolanic concretes at elevated temperatures, Cement and Concrete Composites 31, 1291, 2001.
14. Piltner, R. and Monteiro, P.J.M., Stress analysis of expansive reactions in concrete, Cement and Concrete Composites 30, 843, 2000.
15. Gérard, B. and Marchand, J., Influence of cracking on the diffusion properties of cement-based materials. Part I. Influence of continuous cracks on the steady-state regime, Cement and Concrete Research 30, 37, 2000.
16. Basheer, P.A.M., Chidiac, S.E., and Long, A.E., Predictive models for deterioration of concrete structures, Construction and Building Materials 10, 27, 1996.
17. Walton, J.C. and Seitz, R.R., Fluid flow through fractures in below ground concrete vaults, Waste Management 12, 179, 1992.
18. Fu, Y.F. et al., Thermal induced stress and associated cracking in cement-based composite at elevated temperatures. Part II. Thermal cracking around multiple inclusions, Cement and Concrete Composites 26, 113, 2004.
19. Tijssens, M.G.A., Sluys, L.J., and van der Giessen, E., Simulation of fracture of cementitious composites with explicit modeling of microstructural features, Engineering Fracture Mechanics 68, 1245, 2001.
20. Mainguy, M., Ulm, F.-J., and Heukamp, F.H., Similarity properties of demineralization and degradation of cracked porous materials, International Journal of Solids and Structures 38, 7079, 2001.
21. Wang, K. et al., Permeability study of cracked concrete, Cement and Concrete Research 27, 381, 1997.
22. Tittlebaum, M.E., Seals, R.K., and Cartledge, F.K., State of the art on stabilization of hazardous organic liquid wastes and sludges, Critical Reviews in Environmental Control 15, 179, 1985.
23. Mollah, M.Y.A. et al., The interfacial chemistry of solidification/stabilization of metals in cement and pozzolanic material systems, Waste Management 15, 137, 1995.
24. Johnson, C.A., Metal Binding in the Cement Matrix: An Overview of Our Current Knowledge, Department of Water Resources and Drinking Water, Water-Rock Interaction Group, EAWAG for Cemsuisse, Switzerland, 2002.
25. Lea, F.M., The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 3rd ed. Chemical Publishing Co., Inc., New York, NY, 1970.
26. Taylor, H.F.W., Cement Chemistry, 2nd ed. Thomas Telford Publishing, London, 1997.
27. Mollah, M.Y.A., Parga, J.R., and Cocke, D.L., An infrared spectroscopic examination of cement-based stabilization/solidification systems — portland types V and IP with zinc, Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A 27, 1503, 1992.
28. Papadakis, V.G., Vayenas, C.G., and Fardis, M.N., Reaction engineering approach to the problem of concrete carbonation, AICHE Journal 35, 1639, 1989.
29. Baur, I. et al., Dissolution-precipitation behaviour of ettringite, monosulfate, and calcium silicate hydrate, Cement and Concrete Research 34, 341, 2004.
30. Cocke, D.L., The binding chemistry and leaching mechanisms of hazardous substances in cementitious stabilization/solidification systems, Journal of Hazardous Materials 24, 231, 1990.
31. Cocke, D.L. et al., Binding chemistry and leaching mechanisms in solidified hazardous wastes, Journal of Hazardous Materials 28, 193, 1991.
32. Gougar, M.L.D., Scheetz, B.E., and Roy, D.M., Ettringite and C-S-H Portland cement phases for waste ion immobilization: a review, Waste Management 16, 295, 1996.
33. Conner, J.R., Chemistry of cementitious solidified/stabilized waste forms, in Chemistry and Microstructure of Solidified Waste Forms, Spence, R.D., Ed., Lewis Publishers, Baton Rouge, LA, 1993, p.
34. Batchelor, B. and Wu, K., Effects of equilibrium chemistry on leaching of contaminants from stabilized/solidified wastes, in Chemistry and Microstructure of Solidified Waste Forms, Spence, R.D., Ed., Lewis Publishers, Baton Rouge, LA, 1993, p.
35. Bonen, D. and Sarkar, S.L., The present state-of-the-art of immobilization of hazardous heavy metals in cement-based materials, in Advances in Cement and Concrete: Proceedings of an Engineering Foundation Conference July 24–29, 1994 New England Center, University of New Hampshire, Grutzeck, M.W. and Sarkar, S.L., Eds., American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY, 1994.
36. Richardson, I.G., The nature of C-S-H in hardened cements, Cement and Concrete Research 29, 1131, 1999.
37. Cartledge, F.K. et al., Immobilization mechanisms in solidification/stabilization of Cd and Pb salts using Portland cement fixing agents, Environmental Science and Technology 24, 867, 1990.
38. 4 attack, Cement and Concrete Research 30, 1535, 2000.
39. Taylor, H.F.W., Famy, C., and Scrivener, K.L., Delayed ettringite formation, Cement and Concrete Research 31, 683, 2001.
40. Li, X.D. et al., Heavy metal speciation and leaching behaviors in cement based solidified/stabilized waste materials, Journal of Hazardous Materials A82, 215, 2001.
41. Kumarathasan, P. et al., Oxyanion substituted ettringites: synthesis and characterization; their potential role in immobilization of As, B, Cr, Se, and V, in Fly Ash and Coal Conversion By-Products: Characterization, Utilization, and Disposal VI, Materials Research Society, Boston, MA, 1990, p.
42. Toyohara, M. et al., Contribution to understanding iodine sorption mechanism onto mixed solid alumina cement and calcium compounds, Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology 39, 950, 2002.
43. van der Sloot, H.A., Characterization of the leaching behaviour of concrete mortars and of cement stabilized wastes with different waste loading for long-term environmental assessment, Waste Management 22, 181, 2002.
44. Glasser, F.P., Fundamental aspects of cement solidification and stabilisation, Journal of Hazardous Materials 52, 151, 1997.
45. Asavapisit, S., Nanthamontry, W., and Polprasert, C., Influence of condensed silica fume on the properties of cement-based solidified wastes, Cement and Concrete Research 31, 1147, 2001.
46. Wu, Z. and Naik, T.R., Properties of concrete produced from multicomponent blended cements, Cement and Concrete Composites 32, 1937, 2002.
47. Papadakis, V.G., Effect of fly ash on Portland cement systems. Part I. Low-calcium fly ash, Cement and Concrete Research 29, 1727, 1999.
48. Papadakis, V.G., Experimental investigation and theoretical modeling of silica fume activity in concrete, Cement and Concrete Research 29, 79, 1999.
49. Escalante-García, J.I. and Sharp, J.H., The microstructure and mechanical properties of blended cements hydrated at various temperatures, Cement and Concrete Research 31, 695, 2001.
50. Dermatas, D. and Meng, X., Utilization of fly ash for stabilization/solidification of heavy metal contaminated soils, Engineering Geology 70, 377, 2003.
51. Thevenin, G. and Pera, J., Interactions between lead and different binders, Cement and Concrete Research 29, 1605, 1999.
52. Bágel’, L. and Zivica, V., Relationship between pore structure and permeability of hardened cement mortars: on the choice of effective pore structure parameter, Cement and Concrete Research 27, 1225, 1997.
53. Ivey, D.G. et al., Electron microscopy characterization techniques for cement solidified/stabilized metal wastes, in Chemistry and Microstructure of Solidified Waste Forms, Spence, R.D., Ed., Lewis Publishers, Baton Rouge, LA, 1993, p.
54. Roy, D.M. and Scheetz, B.E., The chemistry of cementitious systems for waste management: the Penn State experience, in Chemistry and Microstructure of Solidified Waste Forms, Spence, R.D., Ed., Lewis Publishers, Baton Rouge, LA, 1993, p.
55. Mohr, P. et al., Transport properties of concrete pavements with excellent long-term in-service performance, Cement and Concrete Research 30, 1903, 2000.
56. Shafiq, N. and Cabrera, J.G., Effects of initial curing condition on the fluid transport properties in OPC and fly ash blended cement concrete, Cement and Concrete Composites 26, 381, 2004.
57. Katz, A.J. and Thompson, A.H., Quantitative prediction of permeability in porous rock, Physical Review B 34, 8179, 1986.
58. Christensen, B.J., Mason, T.O., and Jennings, H.M., Comparison of measured and calculated permeabilities for hardened cement pastes, Cement and Concrete Research 26, 1325, 1996.
59. El-Dieb, A.S. and Hooten, R.D., Evaluation of the Katz-Thompson model for estimating the water permeability of cement-based materials from mercury intrusion porosimetry data, Cement and Concrete Research 24, 443, 1994.
60. Tumidajski, P.J. and Lin, B., On the validity of the Katz-Thompson equation for permeabilities in concrete, Cement and Concrete Research 28, 643, 1998.
61. McCarter, W.J., Starrs, G., and Chrisp, T.M., Electrical conductivity, diffusion, and permeability of Portland cement-based mortars, Cement and Concrete Research 30, 1395, 2000.
62. Perkins, R.B. and Palmer, C.D., Solubility of ettringite (Ca6[Al(OH)6]2(SO4)3. 26H20) at 5-75°C, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 63, 1969, 1999.
63. Damidot, D. and Glasser, F.P., Investigation of the CaO-Al2O3-SiO2-H20 system at 25°C by thermodynamic calculations, Cement and Concrete Research 25, 22, 1995.
64. Stronach, S.A. and Glasser, F.P., Modelling the impact of abundant geochemical components on phase stability and solubility of the CaO-SiO2-H20 system at 25°C: Na+, K+, SO4 2–, Cl–, and CO3 2–, Advances in Cement Research 9, 167, 1997.
65. Stegemann, J.A., Shi, C., and Caldwell, R.J., Response of various solidification systems to acid addition, in International Conference on the Environmental and Technical Implications of Construction with Alternative Materials, WASCON’97, Goumans, J.J.J.M., Senden, G.J., and van der Sloot, H.A., Eds., Elsevier Science, B.V., Houthem St. Gerlach, The Netherlands, 1997.
66. Glass, G.K. and Buenfeld, N.R., Differential acid neutralisation analysis, Cement and Concrete Research 29, 1681, 1999.
67. Glass, G.K., Reddy, G., and Buenfeld, N.R., Corrosion inhibition in concrete arising from its acid neutralisation capacity, Corrosion Science 42, 1587, 2000.
68. Stegemann, J.A. and Buenfeld, N.R., Prediction of leachate pH for cement paste containing pure metal components, Journal of Hazardous Materials 90, 169, 2002.
69. Bonen, D. and Sarkar, S.L., The effects of simulated environmental attack on immobilization of heavy metals doped in cement-based materials, Journal of Hazardous Materials 40, 321, 1995.
70. Carde, C. and François, R., Modelling the loss of strength and porosity increase due to the leaching of cement pastes, Cement and Concrete Research 21, 181, 1999.
71. Barth, E.F. et al., Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous Wastes, Noyles Data Corporation, Park Ridge, NJ, 1990.
72. Baker, P.G. and Bishop, P.L., Prediction of metal leaching rates from solidified/stabilized wastes using the shrinking unreacted core leaching procedure, Journal of Hazardous Materials 52, 311, 1997.
73. Massry, I.W., The Impact of Micropore Diffusion on Contaminant Transport and Biodegradation Rates in Soils and Aquifer Materials, Ph.D. Dissertation, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, 1997.
74. Cheng, K.Y. and Bishop, P.L., Sorption, important in stabilized/solidified waste forms, Hazardous Waste Hazardous Materials 9, 289, 1992.
75. Cheng, K.Y. and Bishop, P., Metals distribution in solidified/stabilized waste forms after leaching, Hazardous Waste Hazardous Materials 9, 163, 1992.
76. Cheng, K.Y. and Bishop, P.L., Morphology and pH changes in leached solidified/stabilized waste forms, in Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes: 3rd Volume, ASTM STP 1240, Gilliam, T.M. and Wiles, C.C., Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1996, p. 73–79.
77. Cheng, K.Y. and Bishop, P.L., Property changes of cement-based waste forms during leaching, in Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes, 3rd Volume, ASTM STP 1240, Gilliam, T.M. and Wiles, C.C., Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1996, p. 375–387.
78. Allen, H.E. and Chen, P.-H., Remediation of metal contaminated soil by EDTA incorporating electrochemical recovery of metal and EDTA, Environmental Progress 12, 284, 1993.
79. Chen, T.C., Macauley, E., and Hong, A., Selection and test of effective chelators for removal of heavy metals from contaminated soils, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 22, 1185, 1995.
80. Erickson, D.C., White, E., and Loehr, R.C., Comparison of extraction fluids used with contaminated soils, Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials 8, 185, 1991.
81. Sahuquillo, A., Rigol, A., and Rauret, G., Overview of the use of leaching/extraction tests for risk assessment of trace metals in contaminated soils and sediments, TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry 22, 152, 2003.
82. Cnubben, P.A.J.P. and van der Sloot, H.A., Leaching characteristics of communal and industrial sludges, in International Conference on the Environmental and Technical Implications of Construction with Alternative Materials, WASCON’97, Goumans, J.J.J.M., Senden, G.J., and van der Sloot, H.A., Eds., Elsevier Science, B.V., Houthem St. Gerlach, The Netherlands, 1997, p.
83. Stumm, W. and Morgan, J.J., Aquatic Chemistry: Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters, 3rd ed. Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY, 1996.
84. Garrabrants, A.C. and Kosson, D.S., Use of a chelating agent to determine the metal availability for leaching from soils and wastes, Waste Management 20, 155, 2000.
85. Serne, R.J. et al., Radionuclide-Chelating Agent Complexes in Low-Level Radioactive Decontamination Wastes; Stability, Adsorption and Transport Potential, NUREG/CR-6758, US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D.C., 2002.
86. van der Sloot, H.A., Hoede, D., and Comans, R.N.J., The influence of reducing properties on leaching of elements from waste materials and construction materials, in Environmental Aspects of Construction with Waste Materials, Goumans, J.J.J.M., van der Sloot, H.A., and Aalbers, T.G., Eds., Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1994, p.
87. van Leeuwen, J. and Ratsma, K., Mine tailings — practical experiences in filling up harbours, in International Conference on the Environmental and Technical Implications of Construction with Alternative Materials, WASCON’97, Goumans, J.J.J.M., Senden, G.J., and van der Sloot, H.A., Eds., Elsevier Sciences, B.V., Houthem St. Gerlach, The Netherlands, 1997, p.
88. Crawford, J., Neretnieks, I., and Moreno, L., A generalised model for the assessment of long-term leaching in combustion residue landfills, in International Conference on the Environmental and Technical Implications of Construction with Alternative Materials, WASCON’97, Goumans, J.J.J.M., Senden, G.J., and van der Sloot, H.A., Eds., Elsevier Science, B.V., Houthem St. Gerlach, The Netherlands, 1997, p.
89. Fitch, J.R. and Cheeseman, C.R., Characterization of environmentally exposed cement-based stabilised/solidified industrial waste, Journal of Hazardous Materials 101, 239, 2003.
90. De Schutter, G., Finite element simulation of thermal cracking in massive hardening concrete elements using degree of hydration based material laws, Computers & Structures 80, 2035, 2002.
91. Cho, W.-J., Lee, J.-O., and Kang, C.-H., Influence of temperature elevation on the sealing performance of a potential buffer material for a high-level radioactive waste repository, Annals of Nuclear Energy 27, 1271, 2000.
92. Langton, C.A., Direct grout stabilization of high cesium salt waste: salt alternative phase III feasibility study, WSRC-TR-98-00337, Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Aiken, SC, 1998.
93. Eighmy, T.T. et al., Use of accelerated aging to predict behavior of recycled materials in concrete pavements — Physical and environmental comparison of laboratory-aged samples with field pavements, in Transportation Research Record, Transportation Research Board National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2002, p.
94. Cerny´, R., Drchalová, J., and Rovnaníková, P., The effects of thermal load and frost cycles on the water transport in two high-performance concrete, Cement and Concrete Research 31, 1129, 2001.
95. De Angelis, G., Marchetti, A., and Balzamo, S., Leach studies: influence of various parameters on the leachability of cesium from cemented BWR evaporator concentrates, in Solidification and Stabilization of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes, 2nd Volume, ASTM STP 1123, Gilliam, T.M. and Wiles, C.C., Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1992, p.
96. Hohberg, I. et al., Development of a leaching protocol for concrete, Waste Management 20, 177, 2000.
97. Almusallam, A.A., Effect of environmental conditions on the properties of fresh and hardened concrete, Cement and Concrete Composites 23, 353, 2001.
98. Kamali, S., Gérard, B., and Moranville, M., Modelling the leaching kinetics of cement-based materials — influence of materials and environment, Cement and Concrete Composites 25, 451, 2003.
99. Klich, I. et al., Mineralogical alterations that affect the durability and metals containment of aged solidified and stabilized wastes, Cement and Concrete Research 29, 1433, 1999.
100. Eighmy, T.T. and Chesner, W.H., Framework for evaluating use of recycled materials in the highway environment, FHWA-RD-00-140, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, VA, 2001.
101. Hime, W.G. and Mather, B., Sulfate attack, or is it?, Cement and Concrete Research 29, 789, 1999.
102. Bentz, D.P. et al., Influence of cement particle-size distribution on early age autogenous strains and stresses in cement-based materials, Journal of the American Ceramic Society 84, 129, 2001.
103. Zhang, M.H., Tam, C.T., and Leow, M.P., Effect of water-to-cementitious materials ratio and silica fume on the autogenous shrinkage of concrete, Cement and Concrete Research 33, 1687, 2003.
104. Brown, P.W. and Bothe, J.W., The stability of ettringite, Advances in Cement Research 5, 47, 1993.
105. Carde, C., François, R., and Torrenti, J.-M., Leaching of both calcium hydroxide and C-S-H from cement paste: modeling the mechanical behavior, Cement and Concrete Research 26, 1257, 1996.
106. Carde, C. and François, R., Effect of the leaching of calcium hydroxide from cement paste on mechanical and physical properties, Cement and Concrete Research 27, 539, 1997.
107. Carde, C. and François, R., Aging damage model of concrete behavior during the leaching process, Materials and Structures 30, 465, 1997.
108. Carde, C., François, R., and Ollivier, J.P., Microstructural changes and mechanical effects due to the leaching of calcium hydroxide from cement paste, in Mechanisms of Chemical Degradation of Cement-based Systems, Scrivener, K.L. and Young, J.F., Eds., E&FN Spon, London, 1997, p.
109. Gérard, B., Le Bellego, C., and Bernard, O., Simplified modelling of calcium leaching of concrete in various environments, Materials and Structures 35, 2002.
110. Heukamp, F.H., Ulm, F.-J., and Germaine, J.T., Poroplastic properties of calciumleached cement-based materials, Cement and Concrete Research 33, 1155, 2003.
111. Kuhl, D., Bangert, F., and Meschke, G., Coupled chemo-mechanical deterioration of cementitious materials. Part I. Modeling, International Journal of Solids and Structures 41, 15, 2004.
112. Kuhl, D., Bangert, F., and Meschke, G., Coupled chemo-mechanical deterioration of cementitious materials. Part II. Numerical methods and simulations, International Journal of Solids and Structures 41, 41, 2004.
113. Mainguy, M. and Coussy, O., Propagation fronts during calcium leaching and chloride penetration, Journal of Engineering Mechanics 126, 250, 2000.
114. Bangert, F. et al., Environmentally induced deterioration of concrete: physical motivation and numerical modeling, Engineering Fracture Mechanics 70, 891, 2003.
115. Ferraris, C.F. et al., Mechanisms of degradation of Portland cement-based systems by sulfate attack, in Mechanisms of Chemical Degradation of Cement-based Systems, Scrivener, K.L. and Young, J.F., Eds., E&FN Spon, London, 1997, p.
116. Santhanam, M., Cohen, M.D., and Olek, J., Sulfate attack research — whither now?, Cement and Concrete Research 31, 845, 2001.
117. Santhanam, M., Cohen, M.D., and Olek, J., Mechanism of sulfate attack: a fresh look. Part 1. Summary of experimental results, Cement and Concrete Research 32, 915, 2002.
118. Santhanam, M., Cohen, M.D., and Olek, J., Mechanism of sulfate attack: a fresh look. Part 2. Proposed mechanisms, Cement and Concrete Research 33, 341, 2003.
119. Taylor, H.F.W. and Gollop, R.S., Some chemical and microstructural aspects of concrete durability, in Mechanisms of Chemical Degradation of Cement-based Systems, Scrivener, K.L. and Young, J.F., Eds., E&FN Spon, London, 1997, p.
120. Brown, P.W. and Doerr, A., Chemical changes in concrete due to the ingress of aggressive species, Cement and Concrete Research 30, 411, 2000.
121. Brown, P.W., Thaumasite formation and other forms of sulfate attack, Cement and Concrete Composites 24, 301, 2002.
122. Al-Amoudi, O.S.B., Attack on plain and blended cements exposed to aggressive sulfate environments, Cement and Concrete Composites 24, 305, 2002.
123. Bakharev, T., Sanjayan, J.G., and Cheng, Y.-B., Sulfate attack on alkali-activated slag concrete, Cement and Concrete Research 32, 211, 2002.
124. Al-Khaiat, H., Haque, M.N., and Fattuhi, N.I., Concrete carbonation in an arid climate, Materials and Structures 35, 2002.
125. Bakharev, T., Sanjayan, J.G., and Cheng, Y.-B., Resistance of alkali-activated slag concrete to carbonation, Cement and Concrete Research 31, 1277, 2001.
126. Balayssac, J.P., Detriche, C.H., and Grandet, J., Effects of curing upon carbonation of concrete, Construction & Building Materials 9, 91, 1995.
127. Bin Shafique, S.M. et al., Influence of carbonation on leaching of cementitious wasteforms, Journal of Environmental Engineering 124, 463, 1998.
128. Chi, J.M., Huang, R., and Yang, C.C., Effects of carbonation on mechanical properties and durability of concrete using accelerated testing method, Journal of Marine Science and Technology 10, 14, 2002.
129. Dewaele, P.J., Reardon, E.J., and Dayal, R., Permeability and porosity changes associated with cement grout carbonation, Cement and Concrete Research 21, 441, 1991.
130. Dias, W.P.S., Reduction of concrete sorptivity with age through carbonation, Cement and Concrete Research 30, 1255, 2000.
131. Freyssinet, P. et al., Chemical changes and leachate mass balance of municipal solid waste bottom ash submitted to weathering, Waste Management 22, 159, 2002.
132. Houst, Y.F., Microstructural changes of hydrate cement paste due to carbonisation, in Mechanisms of Chemical Degradation of Cement-based Systems, Scrivener, K.L. and Young, J.F., Eds., E&FN Spon, London, 1997, p.
133. Kobayashi, K., Suzuki, K., and Uno, Y., Carbonation of concrete structures and decomposition of C-S-H, Cement and Concrete Research 24, 55, 1994.
134. Lange, L.C., Hills, C.D., and Poole, A.B., The effect of accelerated carbonation on the properties of cement-solidified waste forms, Waste Management 16, 757, 1996.
135. Lange, L.C., Hills, C.D., and Poole, A.B., Effect of carbonation on properties of blended and non-blended cement solidified waste forms, Journal of Hazardous Materials 52, 193, 1997.
136. Maslehuddin, M., Shirokoff, J., and Siddiqui, M.A.B., Changes in the phase composition in OPC and blended cement mortars due to carbonation, Advances in Cement Research 8, 167, 1996.
137. Nishikawa, T. et al., Decomposition of synthesized ettringite by carbonation, Cement and Concrete Research 22, 6, 1992.
138. Papadakis, V.G., Vayenas, C.G., and Fardis, M.N., Experimental investigation and mathematical modeling of the concrete carbonation problem, Chemical Engineering Science 46, 1333, 1991.
139. Roy, S.K., Poh, K.B., and Northwood, D.O., Durability of concrete — accelerated carbonation and weathering studies, Building and Environment 34, 597, 1999.
140. Van Gerven, T. et al., Influence of carbonation and carbonation methods on leaching of metals from mortars, Cement and Concrete Research 34, 149, 2004.
141. Walton, J.C. et al., Role of carbonation in transient leaching of cementitious wasteforms, Environmental Science and Technology 31, 1997.
142. Walton, J.C. et al., Role of carbonation in long-term performance of cementitious wasteforms, in Mechanisms of Chemical Degradation of Cement-based Systems, Scrivener, K.L. and Young, J.F., Eds., E&FN Spon, London, 1997, p.
143. Baroghel-Bouny, V. et al., Characterization and identification of equilibrium and transfer moisture properties for ordinary and high-performance cementitious materials, Cement and Concrete Research 29, 1225, 1999.
144. Akita, H., Fujiwara, T., and Ozaka, Y., Practical procedure for the analysis of moisture transfer within concrete due to drying, Magazine of Concrete Research 49, 129, 1997.
145. van Breugel, K. and Koenders, E.A.B., Numerical simulation of hydration-driven moisture transport in bulk and interface paste in hardened concrete, Cement and Concrete Research 30, 1911, 2000.
146. Numao, T., Mihashi, H., and Fukuzawa, K., Moisture migration and drying properties of hardened cement paste and mortar, Nuclear Engineering and Design 156, 139, 1995.
147. Ayano, T. and Wittmann, F.H., Drying, moisture distribution, and shrinkage of cement-based materials, Materials and Structures 35, 2002.
148. Garrabrants, A.C. and Kosson, D.S., Modeling moisture transport from a Portland cement-based material during storage in reactive and inert atmospheres, Drying Technology 21, 775, 2003.
149. Beyea, S.D. et al., Magnetic resonance imaging and moisture content profiles of drying concrete, Cement and Concrete Research 28, 453, 1998.
150. Werner, K.-C., Chen, Y., and Odler, I., Investigations on stress corrosion of hardened cement pastes, Cement and Concrete Research 30, 1443, 2000.
151. Tian, B. and Cohen, M.D., Does gypsum formation during sulfate attack on concrete lead to expansion?, Cement and Concrete Research 30, 117, 2000.
152. Kumar, S. and Rao, C.V.S.K., Sulfate attack on concrete in simulated cast-in-situ and precast situations, Cement and Concrete Research 25, 1, 1995.
153. Stock, S.R. et al., X-ray microtomography (microCT) of the progression of sulfate attack of cement paste, Cement and Concrete Research 32, 1673, 2002.
154. Gollop, R.S. and Taylor, H.F.W., Microstructure and microanalytical studies of sulfate attack IV. Reactions of a slag cement paste with sodium and magnesium sulfate solutions, Cement and Concrete Research 26, 1013, 1996.
155. Gollop, R.S. and Taylor, H.F.W., Microstructure and microanalytical studies of sulfate attack V. Comparison of different slag blends, Cement and Concrete Research 26, 1029, 1996.
156. Bazant, Z.P. and Najjar, L.J., Drying of concrete as a nonlinear diffusion problem, Cement and Concrete Research 1, 461, 1971.
157. Bazant, Z.P. and Najjar, L.J., Nonlinear water diffusion in nonsaturated concrete, Matériaux et Constructions 5, 3, 1972.
158. Šelih, J., Sousa, A.C.M., and Bremner, T.W., Moisture transport in initially fully saturated concrete during drying, Transport in Porous Media 24, 81, 1996.
159. Keey, R.B., Drying — Principles and Practice, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, 1972.
160. van der Zanden, A.J.J., Modelling and simulating simultaneous liquid and vapour transport in partially saturated porous materials, in Mathematical Modeling and Numerical Techniques in Drying Technology, Turner, I.W. and Mujumdar, A.S., Eds., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY, 1997, p.
161. Rogers, J.A. and Kaviany, M., Funicular and evaporative-front regimes in convective drying of granular beds, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 35, 469, 1992.
162. Garrabrants, A.C., Sanchez, F., and Kosson, D.S., Leaching model for a cement mortar exposed to intermittent wetting and drying, Aiche Journal 49, 1317, 2003.
163. Macías, A., Kindness, A., and Glasser, F.P., Impact of carbon dioxide on the immobilization potential of cemented wastes: chromium, Cement and Concrete Research 27, 215, 1997.
164. Smith, R.W. and Walton, J.C., The effects of calcite solid solution formation on the transient release of radionuclides from concrete barriers, Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management XIV 212, 403, 1991.
165. Sarott, F.-A. et al., Diffusion and adsorption studies on hardened cement paste and the effect of carbonation on diffusion rates, Cement and Concrete Research 22, 439, 1992.
166. Ngala, V.T. and Page, C.L., Effects of carbonation on pore structure and diffusional properties of hydrated cement pastes, Cement and Concrete Research 27, 99, 1997.
167. Lange, L.C., Hills, C.D., and Poole, A.B., Preliminary investigation into the effects of carbonation on cement-solidified hazardous wastes, Environmental Science and Technology 30, 25, 1996.
168. Lange, L.C., Hills, C.D., and Poole, A.B., The influence of mix parameters and binder choice on the carbonation of cement solidified wastes, Waste Management 16, 749, 1996.
169. Papadakis, V.G., Effect of supplementary cementing materials on concrete resistance against carbonation and chloride ingress, Cement and Concrete Research 30, 291, 2000.
170. Gervais, C. et al., The effects of carbonation and drying during intermittent leaching on the release of inorganic constituents from a cement-based matrix, Cement and Concrete Research 34, 119, 2004.
171. Atis, C.D., Accelerated carbonation and testing of concrete made with fly ash, Construction & Building Materials 17, 147, 2003.
172. Walter, M.B. et al., Chemical characterization, leach and adsorption studies of solidified low-level wastes, Nuclear and Chemical Waste Management, 8, 55, 1988.
173. van der Sloot, H.A., Heasman, L., and Quevauviller, P., Harmonization of Leaching/Extraction Tests, in Studies in Environmental Science, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, 1997, p.
174. van der Sloot, H.A., Developments in evaluating environmental impact from utilization of bulk inert wastes using laboratory leaching tests and field verification, Waste Management 16, 65, 1996.
175. CEN/TC 292 WG6, Characterisation of waste: leaching behavior tests — compliance leaching tests for granular waste, Parts 1-4, EN 12457, 1999.
176. USEPA, Method 1311: Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 2004.
177. USEPA, Method 1312: Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure, USEPA Office of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C., 2004.
178. Boy, J.H. et al., Response of Pb in cement waste forms during TCLP testing, in Mechanisms of Chemical Degradation of Cement-based Systems, Scrivener, K.L. and Young, J.F., Eds., E&FN Spon, London, 1997, p.
179. NEN, Determination of the availability for leaching of inorganic constituents from granular materials, NEN 7341, Netherlands Normalisation Institute, Delft, The Netherlands, 1995.
180. prEN 14405, Characterisation of waste: leaching behavior tests — up-flow percolation test, CEN/TC 292 WG6, 2001.
181. Fed. Reg. 41005 (July 31, 1997).
182. Fed. Reg. 63458 (December 1, 1997).
183. Comans, R.N.J., van der Sloot, H.A., and Bonouvrie, P.A., Geochemical reactions controlling the solubility of major and trace elements during leaching of municipal solid waste incinerator residues, in The 1993 Municipal Waste Combustion Conference, Kilgroe, J., Ed., AWMA, Pittsburgh, PA, Williamsburg, VA, 1993, p.
184. prEN 14429, Characterisation of waste: leaching behavior tests — pH dependence test with initial acid/base addition, CEN/TC 292 WG6, 2001.
185. Garrabrants, A.C. et al., Methodology for determining inorganic release from soils and wastes, in Society for Risk Analysis/International Society for Exposure Analysis National Meeting, New Orleans, LA, 1996.
186. Sanchez, F., Etude de la lixiviation de milieux poreux contenant des espèces solubles: application au cas des déchets solidifiés par liants hydrauliques, Doctoral thesis, Institut National des Sciences Appliquées, Lyon, France, 1996.
187. Sanchez, F. et al., Environmental assessment of a cement-based solidified soil contaminated with lead, Chemical Engineering Science 55, 113, 2000.
188. Sanchez, F. et al., Use of a new leaching test framework for evaluating alternative treatment processes for mercury contaminated mixed waste, Environmental Engineering Science 19, 251, 2002.
189. ASTM, Standard Test Method for Shake Extraction of Solid Waste with Water, ASTM D 3987-85, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
190. DIN-NORMEN, Determination of leachability by water (S4), DIN 38 414 S4, Sludge and Sediments Group S, 1984.
191. Tessier, A., Campbell, P.G.C., and Bisson, M., Sequential extraction procedure for the speciation of particulate trace metals, Analytical Chemistry 51, 844, 1979.
192. Berardi, R., Cioffi, R., and Santoro, L., Matrix stability and leaching behaviour in ettringite-based stabilization systems doped with heavy metals, Waste Management 17, 535, 1997.
193. Lin, C.-F., Lin, T.-T., and Huang, T.-H., Leaching processes of the dicalcium silicate and copper oxide solidification/stabilization system, Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry 44, 89, 1994.
194. Delagrave, A., Gérard, B., and Marchand, J., Modelling the calcium leaching mechanisms in hydrated cement pastes, in Mechansims of Chemical Degradation of Cement-based Systems, Scrivener, K.L. and Young, J.F., Eds., E&FN Spon, London, 1997, p.
195. Stanish, K. and Thomas, M., The use of bulk diffusion tests to establish timedependent concrete chloride diffusion coefficients, Cement and Concrete Research 33, 55, 2003.
196. Tiruta-Barna, L.R., Barna, R., and Moszkowicz, P., Modeling of solid/liquid/gas mass transfer for environmental evaluation of cement-based solidified waste, Environmental Science and Technology 35, 149, 2001.
197. Andac, M. and Glasser, F.P., The effect of test conditions on the leaching of stabilised MSWI-fly ash in Portland cement, Waste Management 18, 309, 1998.
198. Andac, M. and Glasser, F.P., Long-term leaching mechanisms of Portland cementstabilized municipal solid waste fly ash in carbonated water, Cement and Concrete Research 29, 179, 1999.
199. Ampadu, K.O., Torii, K., and Kawamura, M., Beneficial effect of fly ash on chloride diffusivity of hardened cement paste, Cement and Concrete Research 29, 585, 1999.
200. Andrade, C. et al., Non-steady-state chloride diffusion coefficients obtained from migration and natural diffusion tests. Part I. Comparison between several methods of calculation, Materials and Structures 33, 2000.
201. Garrabrants, A.C. et al., The effect of storage in an inert atmosphere on the release of inorganic constituents during intermittent wetting of a cement-based material, Journal of Hazardous Materials 91, 159, 2002.
202. Sanchez, F., Garrabrants, A.C., and Kosson, D.S., Effects of intermittent wetting on concentration profiles and release from a cement-based waste matrix, Environmental Engineering Science 20, 135, 2003.
203. NEN, Determination of the leaching of inorganic components from building materials and monolithic waste materials with the diffusion test, NEN 7345, Netherlands Normalisation Institute, Delft, The Netherlands, 1995.
204. American Nuclear Society (ANS), Measurement of the Leachability of Solidified Low-Level Radioactive Wastes by a Short-Term Test Procedure, ANSI/ANS 16.1- 2003, American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, IL, 2003.
205. Garrabrants, A.C., Development and application of fundamental leaching property protocols for evaluating inorganic release from wastes and soils, Masters thesis, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, 1998.
206. Sanchez, F. et al., Environmental assessment of waste matrices contaminated with arsenic, Journal of Hazardous Materials 96, 229, 2003.
207. Sanchez, F. et al., Leaching of inorganic contaminants from cement-based waste materials as a result of carbonation during intermittent wetting, Waste Management 22, 249, 2002.
208. ASTM, Standard Test Method for Leaching Solid Waste in a Column Apparatus, ASTM D 4874, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 2001.
209. NEN, Determination of the leaching of inorganic components from granular materials with the column test, NEN 7343, Netherlands Normalisation Institute, Delft, The Netherlands, 1995.
210. Ludwig, C. et al., Hydrological and geochemical factors controlling the leaching of cemented MSWI air pollution control residues: a lysimeter field study, Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 42, 253, 2000.
211. Shimaoka, T. and Hanashima, M., Behavior of stabilized fly ashes in solid waste landfills, Waste Management 16, 545, 1996.
212. Poon, C.S. and Chen, Z.Q., Comparison of the characteristics of flow-through and flow-around leaching tests of solidified heavy metal wastes, Chemosphere 38, 663, 1999.
213. Poon, C.S., Chen, Z.Q., and Wai, O.W.H., The effect of flow-through leaching on the diffusivity of heavy metals in stabilized/solidified wastes, Journal of Hazardous Materials 81, 179, 2001.
214. Atkinson, A., Nelson, K., and Valentine, T.M., Leach test characterization of cementbased nuclear waste forms, Nuclear and Chemical Waste Management, 6, 241–253, 1986.
215. Moudilou, E. et al., A dynamic leaching method for the assessment of trace metals released from hydraulic binders, Waste Management 22, 153, 2002.
216. Crank, J., The Mathematics of Diffusion, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, London, UK, 1975.
217. Barneyback, S., Jr. and Diamond, S., Expression and analysis of pore fluids from hardened cement pastes and mortars, Cement and Concrete Research 11, 279, 1981.
218. Duchesne, J. and Bérubé, M.A., Evaluation of the validity of the pore solution expression method from hardened cement pastes and mortars, Cement and Concrete Research 24, 456, 1994.
219. Sahu, S. and Diamond, S., Pore solution chemistry of simulated low level liquid waste incorporated cement grouts, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, Pittsburgh, PA, USA 412, Materials Research Society, 411, 1996.
220. Constantiner, D. and Diamond, S., Pore solution analysis: are there pressure effects?, in Mechanisms of Chemical Degradation of Cement-based Systems, Scrivener, K.L. and Young, J.F., Eds., E&FN Spon, London, 1997, p.
221. Rivard, P. et al., Alkali mass balance during the accelerated concrete prism test for alkali-aggregate reactivity, Cement and Concrete Research 33, 1147, 2003.
222. de Groot, G.J. and van der Sloot, H.A., Determination of leaching characteristics of waste materials leading to environmental product certification, in Solidification and Stabilization of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes, 2nd Volume, ASTM STP 1123, Gilliam, T.M. and Wiles, C.C., Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1992, p.
223. Krishnamoorthy, T.M. et al., Desorption kinetics of radionuclides fixed in cement matrix, Nuclear Technology 104, 351, 1993.
224. Barna, R. et al., Solubility model for the pore solution of leached concrete containing solidified waste, Journal of Hazardous Materials 37, 33, 1994.
225. Hinsenveld, M., A shrinking core model as a fundamental representation of leaching mechanisms in cement stabilized waste, Doctoral thesis, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, 1992.