Cognitive-processing bias in chronic pain: A review and integration

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 127, Issue 5, 2001, Pages 599-617

  Pincus, Tamar ^a   Morley, Stephen ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANXIETY; ATTENTION; CHRONIC DISEASE; COMORBIDITY; DEPRESSION; HUMAN; PAIN; PATIENT ATTITUDE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW; SELF CONCEPT;

ANXIETY; ATTENTION; CHRONIC DISEASE; COMORBIDITY; DEPRESSION; HUMANS; PAIN; SELF CONCEPT; SICK ROLE;

EID: 85047684173     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.127.5.599     Document Type: Review

References (162)

1. American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
2. Amir, N., McNally, R. J., Riemann, B. C., Burns, J., Lorenz, M., & Mullen. J. T. (1996). Suppression of the emotional Stroop effect by increased anxiety in patients with social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 945-948.
3. Asmundson, C. J. G., Kuperos, J. L., & Norton, C. R. (1997). Do patients with chronic pain selectively attend to pain-retated information? Preliminary evidence for the mediating role of fear. Pain, 72, 27-32.
4. Banks, S. M., & Kerns, R. D. (1996). Explaining high rates of depression in chronic pain: A diathesis-stress framework. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 95-110.
5. Barton, S. B., & Morley, S. (1999). Specificity of reference patterns in depressive thinking: Agency and object roles in self-representation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 655-661.
6. Beck, A. T., Rush, A., Shaw, B., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford Press.
7. Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571.
8. Blalock, S. J., DeVellis, R. F., Brown, G. K., & Wallston, K. A. (1989). Validity of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale in arthritis populations. Arthritis and Rheumatology, 32, 991-997.
9. Blaney, P. H. (1986). Affect and memory: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 229-246.
10. Boissevan, M. (1994). Information processing in chronic pain. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
11. Boothby, J. L., Thorn, B. E., Stroud, M. W., & Jensen, M. P. (1999). Coping with pain. In R. J. Gatchel & D. C. Turk (Eds.), Psychosocial factors in pain: Critical perspectives (pp. 343-359). New York: Guilford Press.
12. Bradley, B., & Mathews, A. (1983). Negative self-schemata in clinical depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22, 173-181.
13. Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. (1978). Social origins of depression: A study of psychiatric disorder in women. London: Tavistock.
14. Calfas, K., Ingram, R. E., & Kaplan, R. M. (1997). Information processing and affective distress in osteoarthritis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 576-581.
15. Cantor, N. (1990). From thought to behavior: Having and doing in the study of personality and growth. American Psychologist, 45, 735-750.
16. Carron, H., DeGood, D. E., & Tait, R. (1985). A comparison of low back pain patients in the United States and New Zealand: Psychosocial and economic factors affecting severity of disability. Pain, 21, 77-89.
17. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. Cambridge. England: Cambridge University Press.
18. Channon, S., Hemsley, D., & de Silva, P. (1988). Selective processing of food words in anorexia nervosa. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 259-260.
19. Chapman, C. R., & Gavrin, J. (1999). Suffering: The contributions of persistent pain. The Lancet, 353, 2233-2237.
20. Christianson, S-A., & Safer, M. A. (1996). Emotional events and emotions in autobiographical memory. In D. C. Rubin (Ed.), Remembering our past: Studies in autobiographical memory (pp, 218-243). New York: Cambridge University Press.
21. Clark, D. A., Cook, A., & Snow, D. (1998). Depressive symptom differences in hospitalized, medically ill, depressed psychiatric inpatients and nonmedical controls. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 38-48.
22. Clemmey, P. A., & Nicassio, P. M. (1997). Illness self-schema in depressed and nondepressed rheumatoid arthritis patients. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 20, 273-290.
23. Cohen, J. D., Dunbar, K., & McClelland, J. L. (1990). On the control of automatic processes: A parallel distributed processing account of the Stroop effect. Psychological Review, 97, 332-361.
24. Creed, F. (1997). Assessing depression in the context of physical illness. In M. M. Robertson & C. L. E. Katona (Eds.), Depression and physical illness (pp. 3-19). Chichester, England: Wiley.
25. Crombez, G., Hermans, D., & Andriaensen, H. (2000). The emotional Stroop task and chronic pain: What is threatening for chronic pain sufferers. European Journal of Pain, 4, 37-44.
26. Crombez, G., Vervaet, L., Lysens, R., Eelen, P., & Baeyens, F. (1998). Avoidance and confrontation of painful back straining movements in chronic back pain patients. Behavior Modification, 22, 62-77.
27. Crombez, G., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., Heuts, P. H. T. G., & Lysens, R. (1999). Pain-related fear is more disabling than pain itself: Evidence on the role of pain-related fear in chronic back pain. Pain, 80, 329-339.
28. Crombie, I. K., & Davies, H. T. O. (1998), Selection bias in pain research. Pain, 74, 1-3.
29. Dalgleish, T., & Power, M. J. (Eds.). (1999). Handbook of cognition and emotion. Chichester, England: Wiley.
30. Damasio, A. (2000). The feeling of what happens. London: Vintage.
31. DeGood, D., & Shutty, M. (1992). Assessment of pain beliefs, coping and self-efficacy. In D. Turk & R. Melzack (Eds.), Handbook of pain assessment (pp. 214-234). New York: Guilford Press.
32. Delacour, J. (1997). Neurobiology of consciousness: An overview. Behavioural Brain Research, 85, 127-141.
33. Derry, P. A., & Kuiper, N. A. (1981). Schematic processing and self-reference in clinical depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 286-297.
34. Dohrenwend, B. P., Raphael, K. G., Marbach, J. P., & Gallagher, R. M. (1999). Why is depression comorbid with chronic myofascial face pain? A family study test of alternative hypotheses. Pain, 83, 183-192.
35. Dubuisson, D., & Melzack, R. (1976). Classification of clinical pain descriptions by multiple group discriminant analysis. Experimental Neurology, 51, 480-487.
36. Eccleston, C. (1994). Chronic pain and attention: A cognitive approach. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33, 535-547.
37. Eccleston, C. (1995a). The attentional control of pain: Methodological and theoretical concerns. Pain, 63, 3-10.
38. Eccleston, C. (1995b). Chronic pain and distraction: An experimental investigation into the role of sustained and shifting attention in the processing of chronic persistent pain. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 391-405.
39. Eccleston, C., & Crombez, G. (1999). Pain demands attention: A cognitive-affective model of the interruptive function of pain. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 356-366.
40. Edwards, L., & Pearce, S. (1994). Word completion in chronic pain: Evidence for schematic representation of pain. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 379-382.
41. Edwards, L., Pearce, S., & Beard, R. W. (1995). Remediation of pain-related memory bias as a result of recovery from chronic pain. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 39, 175-181.
42. Edwards, L., Pearce, S., Collett, B.-J., & Pugh, R. (1992). Selective memory for sensory and affective information in chronic pain and depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 239-248.
43. Eich, E., Rachman, S., & Lopatka, C. (1990). Affect, pain, and autobiographical memory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 174-178.
44. Ellis, H. C., & Moore, B. A. (1999). Mood and memory. In T. Dalgleish & M. J. Power (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 193-210). Chichester, England: Wiley.
45. Eysenck, M. W., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1987). Cognitive functioning and anxiety. Psychological Research, 49, 189-195.
46. Fernandez, E., & Turk, D. C. (1992). Sensory and affective components of pain: Separation and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 205-217.
47. Foa, E., Ilai, D., McCarthy, R. R., Shoyer, B., & Murdock, T. B. (1993). Information processing in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 17, 173-189.
48. Gaskin, M. E., Greene, A. F., Robinson, M. E., & Geisser, M. E. (1992). Negative affect and the experience of pain. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 36, 707-713.
49. Gatchel, R. J., & Turk, D. C. (1996). Psychological approaches to pain management: A practitioner's handbook. New York: Guilford Press.
50. Gilboa, E., & Gotlib, I. (1997). Cognitive interference in depression. In I. G. Sarason, G. R. Pearce, & B. R. Sarason (Eds.), Cognitive interference: Theories, methods and findings (pp. 347-377). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
51. Gotlib, I. H., Kurtzman, H. S., & Blehar, M. C. (1997). Cognition and depression: Issues and future directions. Cognition and Emotion, 11, 663-673.
52. Gracely, R. H. (1992). Evaluation of multi-dimensional pain scales. Pain, 48, 297-300.
53. Gracely, R. H. (1994). Studies of pain in normal man. In P. D. Wall & R. Melzack (Eds.), Textbook of pain (pp. 315-336). Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingston.
54. Greenberg, M. S., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Depression versus anxiety: Processing of self and other-referent information. Cognition and Emotion, 3, 207-223.
55. Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1022-1038.
56. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
57. Griffith, J., McLean, M., & Pearce, S. A. (1996). Information processing across three chronic pain groups. In Abstracts of 8th World Congress on Pain (p. 75). Seattle, WA: International Association for the Study of Pain.
58. Grisart, J. M., & Plaghki, L. (1999). Impaired selective attention in chronic pain patients. European Journal of Pain, 3, 325-334.
59. Grisart, J. M., Vanderlinden, M., & Plagkhi, L. (2001), Pain related fear in chronic pain patients impairs controlled retrieval in a cued recall of emotionally neutral words. Manuscript submitted for publication.
60. Hanson, L. C., & Gerber, H. (1990). Coping with chronic pain. New York: Guilford Press.
61. Harkins, S. W., Price, D. D., & Braith, J. (1989). Effects of extraversion and neuroticism on experimental pain, clinical pain, and illness behavior. Pain, 36, 209-218.
62. Herbert, C. (1992). Investigation of the influence of pain-related stimulus words on information processing mechanisms in pain patients. Unpublished master's thesis. University College London, London University, London.
63. Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
64. Holzman, A. D., Rudy, T. E., Gerber, K. E., Turk, D. C., Sanders, S. H., Zimmerman, J., & Kerns, R. D. (1985). Chronic pain: A multiple-setting comparison of patient characteristics. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 8, 411-422.
65. Hooker, K. (1992). Possible selves and perceived health in older adults and college students. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 47, P85-P95.
66. Hooker, K., & Kraus, C. R. (1994). Health-related possible selves in young and middle adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 9, 126-133.
67. Houdenhove, B. Van., & Onghena, P. (1997). Pain and depression. In M. M. Robertson & C. L. E. Katona (Eds.), Depression and physical illness (pp. 465-497). Chichester, England: Wiley.
68. Ingram, R. E., Atkinson, J. H., Slater, M. A., Saccuzzo, D. P., & Garfin, S. R. (1990). Negative and positive cognition in depressed and non-depressed chronic pain patients. Health Psychology, 9, 300-314.
69. Ingram, R. E., Miranda, J., & Segal, Z. V. (1998). Cognitive vulnerability to depression. New York: Guilford Press.
70. Jamison, R. N., Rudy, T. E., Penzien, D. B., & Mosley, T. H. (1994). Cognitive-behavioral classification of chronic pain: Replication and extension of empirically derived patient profiles. Pain, 57, 277-292.
71. Johnson, R., & Spence, S. (1997). Pain affect and cognition in children: Recall bias associated with pain. In G. F. Gebhart, D. L. Hammond, & T. S. Jensen (Eds.), Progress in pain research and management: Vol. 2. Proceedings of the 7th World Congress on Pain (pp. 877-884). Seattle, WA: International Association for the Study of Pain.
72. Keefe, F. J., Dunsmore, J., & Burnett, R. (1992). Behavioral and cognitive-behavioral approaches to chronic pain: Recent advances and future directions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 528-536.
73. Keogh, E., Ellery, D., Hunt, C., & Hannent, I. (2001). Selective attentional bias for pain-related stimuli amongst pain tearful individuals. Pain, 91, 91-100.
74. Kihlstrom, J. F., Cantor, N., Albright, J. S., Chew, B. R., Klein, S. B., & Niedenthal, P. M. (1988). Information processing and the study of the self. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 145-178.
75. Kihlstrom, J. F., & Klein, S. B. (1997). Self-knowledge and self-awareness. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 818, 5-17.
76. Kinderman, P. (1994). Attentional bias, persecutory delusions and the self-concept. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 67, 53-66.
77. Klein, S. B., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1986). Elaboration, organization, and the self-reference effect in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115, 26-38.
78. Koutantji, M., Pearce, S. A., Oakley, D. A., & Feinmann, C. (1999). Children in pain: An investigation of selective memory for pain and psychological adjustment. Pain, 81, 237-244.
79. Kuiper, N. A., & Derry, P. A. (1982). Depressed and nondepressed content self-reference in mild depressives. Journal of Personality, 50, 67-80.
80. Leventhal, H. (1984). Perceptual motor theory of emotion. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 17, 117-182.
81. Leventhal, H. L., Benyamini, Y., Brownlee, S., Diefenbach, M., Leventhal, E. A., Patrick-Miller, L., & Robitaille, C. (1997). Illness representation: Theoretical foundations. In K. J. Petrie & J. A. Weinmann (Eds.), Perceptions of health and illness: Current research and applications (pp. 19-45). Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Press.
82. Leventhal, H., & Everhart, D. (1979). Emotion, pain and physical illness. In C. E. Izard (Ed.), Emotions in personality and psychopathology (pp. 263-299). New York: Plenum.
83. Leventhal, H., Idler, E. L., & Leventhal, E. A. (1999). The impact of chronic illness on the self. In R. J. Contrada & R. D. Ashmore (Eds.), Self, social identity, and physical health. Rutgers series on self and social identity (Vol. 2, pp. 185-208). New York: Oxford University Press.
84. Linton, S. J. (2000). A review of psychological risk factors in back and neck pain. Spine, 25, 1148-1156.
85. MacLeod, C. (1999). Anxiety and anxiety disorders. In T. Dalgleish & M. J. Power (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 447-477), Chichester, England: Wiley.
86. MacLeod, C., & Cohen, I. L. (1993). Anxiety and the interpretation of ambiguity: A text comprehension study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 238-247.
87. MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15-20.
88. MacLeod, C. M. (1991). Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 163-203.
89. Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954-969.
90. Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological approach. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 299-337.
91. Mathews, A. M., & MacLeod, C. (1985). Selective processing of threat cues in anxiety states. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 563-569.
92. Mathews, A. M., Richards, A., & Eysenck, M. (1989). The interpretation of homophones related to threat and anxiety states. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 31-34.
93. Mathews, A. M., & Sebastian, S. (1993). Suppression of emotional Stroop effects by fear arousal. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 517-530.
94. McCracken, L. M. (1997), "Attention" to pain in persons with chronic pain: A behavioral approach. Behavior Therapy, 28, 271-284.
95. Melzack, R. (1990). Phantom limbs and the concept of the neuromatrix. Trends in Neuroscience, 13, 88-92.
96. Melzack, R., & Casey, K. (1968). Sensory motivational and central control determinants of pain: A new conceptual model. In D. Kenshato (Ed.), The skin senses (pp. 423-443). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
97. Melzack, R., & Katz, J. (1992). The McGill Pain Questionnaire: Appraisal and current status. In D. C. Turk & R. Melzack (Eds.), Handbook of pain assessment (pp. 152-168). New York: Guilford Press.
98. Miranda, J., & Gross, J. J. (1997). Cognitive vulnerability, depression, and the mood-state dependent hypothesis: Is out of sight out of mind? Cognition and Emotion, 11, 585-605.
99. Miranda, J., & Persons, J. B. (1988). Dysfunctional attitudes are mood-state dependent. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 76-79.
100. Morley, S., Eccleston, C., & Williams, A. C. deC. (1999). Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of cognitive behavioural therapy for chronic pain in adults, excluding headache. Pain, 80, 1-13.
101. Morley, S., & Wilkinson, L. (1995). The pain beliefs and perceptions inventory: A British replication. Pain, 61, 427-433.
102. Moses, J. (1989). Attentional issues in chronic pain. Unpublished master's thesis. University of Liverpool, Liverpool, England.
103. Novy, D. M., Nelson, D. V., Francis, D. J., & Turk, D. C. (1995). Perspectives of chronic pain: An evaluative comparison of restrictive and comprehensive models. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 238-247.
104. Oatley, K. (1992). Best laid schemes: The psychology of emotion. Cambridge. England: Cambridge University Press.
105. Oatley, K., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1996). The communications theory of emotions: Empirical tests, mental models and the implications for social interactions. In L. M. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.). Striving and feeling (pp. 363-393). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
106. O'Keeffe, J. L. (1989). The influence of the self-schema on cognitive processes in chronic pain patients. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Utah, Salt Lake City.
107. Pearce, J., & Morley, S. (1989). An experimental investigation of the construct validity of the McGill Pain Questionnaire. Pain, 39, 115-121.
108. Pearce, S., Isherwood, S., Hrouda, D., Richardson, P. H., Erskine, A., & Skinner, J. (1990). Memory and páin: Test of mood congruity and state dependent learning in experimentally induced and clinical pain. Pain, 43, 187-193.
109. Petrie, K. J., & Weinmann, J. A. (Eds.). (1997). Perceptions of health and illness: Current research and applications. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Press.
110. Pincus, T. (1993). Information processing biases in pain patients. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University College London, London.
111. Pincus, T., Burton, A. K., Vogel, S., & Field, A. P. (in press). A systematic review of psychological factors as predictors of chronicity/disability in prospective cohorts of low back pain. Spine.
112. Pincus, T., Callahan, L. F., Bradley, L. A., Vaughn, I. N., & Wolfe, F. (1986), Elevated MMPI scores for hypochondriasis, depression, and hysteria in patients with rheumatoid arthritis reflects disease rather than psychological status. Arthritis and Rheumatology, 29, 1456-1460.
113. Pincus, T., Fraser, L., & Pearce, S. (1998). Do chronic pain patients "Stroop" on pain stimuli? British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 49-58.
114. Pincus, T., Griffith, J., Pearce, S., & Isenberg, D. (1996). Prevalence of self-reported depression in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. British Journal of Rheumatology, 35, 879-883.
115. Pincus, T., & Newman, S. (2001). Recall bias, pain, depression and cost in back pain patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 143-156.
116. Pincus, T., Pearce, S., McClelland, A., Farley, S., & Vogel, S. (1994). Interpretative bias of ambiguous stimuli in chronic pain patients. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38, 347-353.
117. Pincus, T., Pearce, S., McClelland, A., & Isenberg, D. (1995). Endorsement and memory bias of self-referential pain stimuli in depressed pain patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34, 267-277.
118. Pincus, T., Pearce, S., McClelland, A., & Turner-Stokes, L. (1993). Self-referential selective memory in pain patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32, 365-375.
119. Pincus, T., Pearce, S., & Perrott, A. (1996). Pain patients' bias in the interpretation of ambiguous homophones. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 69, 259-266.
120. Pincus, T., & Williams, A. (1999). Models and measurements of depression in chronic pain. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 47, 211-219.
121. Price, D. D. (1988). Psychological and neurological mechanisms of pain. New York: Raven Press.
122. Price, D. D. (1999). Psychological mechanisms of pain and analgesia. Seattle, WA: International Association for the Study of Pain.
123. Queck, J. S. (1987). Self-schema functioning and its relation to depression and treatment outcome among chronic pain patients. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
124. Radloff, L. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Journal of Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401.
125. Richards, A., & French, C. C. (1992). An anxiety-related bias in semantic activation when processing threat/neutral homographs. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A, 45, 503-525.
126. Robinson, M. E., & Riley, J. L. (1999). The role of emotion. In R. J. Gatchel & D. C. Turk (Eds.). Psychosocial factors in pain: Critical perspectives (pp. 74-88). New York: Guilford Press.
127. Rosenthal, M. C. (1994). The fugitive literature. In H. Cooper & L. V. Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 85-94). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
128. Rubin, D. C. (Ed.). (1996). Remembering our past: Studies in autobiographical memory. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
129. Sandgren, A. K. (1989). Chronic pain self-schemas: The evidence for their existence and influence in the perception of others. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, St. Louis University, Missouri.
130. Segal, Z. V. (1988). Appraisal of the self-schema construct in cognitive models of depression. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 147-162.
131. Segal, Z. V., & Gemar, M. (1997). Changes in cognitive organization for negative self-referent material following cognitive therapy for depression: A primed Stroop study. Cognition and Emotion, 11, 501-516.
132. Segal, Z. V., Gemar, M., Truchon, C., Guirguis, M., & Horowitz, L. M. (1995). A priming methodology for studying self-representation in major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 205-213.
133. Segal, Z. V., & Ingram, R. E. (1994). Priming and construct activation in tests of cognitive vulnerability to unipolar depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 663-695.
134. Segal, Z. V., Lau, M. A., & Rokke, P. D. (1999). Cognition and emotion research and the practice of cognitive-behavioural therapy. In T. Dalgleish & M. J. Power (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 705-726). Chichester, England: Wiley.
135. Singer, J., & Salovey, P. (1988). Mood and memory: Evaluating the network theory of affect. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 211-251.
136. Skelton, J. A., & Croyle, R. T. (Eds.). (1991). Mental representation in health and illness. New York: Springer-Verlag.
137. Smith, T. W., O'Keeffe, J. L., & Christensen, A. J. (1994). Cognitive distortions and depression in chronic pain: Association with diagnosed disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 195-198.
138. Snider, B. S., Asmundson, G. J. G., & Wiese, K. C. (2000). Automatic and strategic processing of threat cues in patients with chronic pain: A modified-Stroop evaluation. Clinical Journal of Pain, 16, 144-154.
139. Strauman, T. J. (1996). Self-beliefs, self-evaluation, and depression: A perspective on emotional vulnerability. In M. L. Tesser & A. Tesser (Eds.), Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (pp. 175-201). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
140. Strauman, T. J., & Higgins, E. T. (1987). Automatic activation of self-discrepancies and emotional syndromes: When cognitive structures influence affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1004-1014.
141. Teasdale, J. D. (1985). Psychological treatments for depression: How do they work? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 157-165.
142. Teasdale, J. D., & Barnard, P. J. (1993). Affect, cognition and change: Re-modeling depressive thought. Hove, England: Erlbaum.
143. Turk, D. C. (1996). A biopsychosocial perspective on chronic pain. In R. Gatchel & D. C. Turk (Eds.), Psychological approaches to pain management: A practitioner's handbook (pp. 3-32). New York: Guilford Press.
144. Turk, D. C., Meichenbaum, D., & Genest, M. (1983). Pain und behavioral medicine: A cognitive behavioral perspective. New York: Guilford Press.
145. Turk, D. C., & Rudy, T. E. (1988). Toward an empirically derived taxonomy of chronic pain patients: Integration of psychological assessment data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 233-238.
146. Turk, D. C., & Rudy, T. E. (1990). The robustness of an empirically derived taxonomy of chronic pain patients. Pain, 43, 27-43.
147. Turk, D. C., & Rudy, T. E. (1992). Cognitive factors and persistent pain: A glimpse into Pandora's box. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 99-122.
148. Vlaeyen, J. W. S., & Linton, S. J. (2000). Fear-avoidance and its consequences in chronic musculoskeletal pain: A state of the art. Pain, 85, 317-332.
149. Von Korff, M., & Simon, G. (1996). The relationship between pain and depression. British Journal of Psychiatry, 168 (Suppl. 30), 101-108.
150. Wade, J. B., Dougherty, L. M., Archer, C. R., & Price, D. D. (1996). Assessing the stages of pain processing: A multivariate analytical approach. Pain, 68, 157-167.
151. Wall, P. D. (1999). Pain: The science of suffering. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson.
152. Weisenberg, M. (1994). Cognitive aspects of pain. In P. D. Wall & R. Melzack (Eds.), Textbook of pain (3rd ed., pp. 315-336). Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingston.
153. Williams, A. C. deC. (1999). Measures of function and psychology. In R. Melzack & P. D. Wall (Eds.), Textbook of pain (4th ed., pp. 427-444). Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingston.
154. Williams, A. C. deC., Morley, S., & Black, S. (2000). Empirical evaluation of best practice in chronic pain management: Influence of patient characteristics and treatment type on outcome (Report #SPGS 558 to South East Thames Region NHS Executive, Research & Development). London: NHS Executive.
155. Williams, A. C. deC., & Richardson, P. H. (1993). What does the BDI measure in chronic pain? Pain, 55, 259-266.
156. Williams, D. A., Robinson, M. E., & Geisser, M. E. (1994). Pain beliefs: Assessment and utility. Pain, 59, 71-78.
157. Williams, J. M. G., & Broadbent, K. D. (1986). Distraction by emotional stimuli: Use of a Stroop task with suicide attempters. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 25, 101-110.
158. Williams, J. M. G., Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3-24.
159. Williams, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1988). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders. Chichester, England: Wiley.
160. Williams, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1997). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders (2nd ed.). Chichester, England: Wiley.
161. Wright, J., & Morley, S. (1995). Autobiographical memory of chronic pain. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34, 255-265.
162. Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983). The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67, 361-370.