Review of synthetic human faeces and faecal sludge for sanitation and wastewater research

Water Research

Volumn 132, Issue , 2018, Pages 222-240

  Penn, Roni ^a   Ward, Barbara J ^a   Strande, Linda ^a   Maurer, Max ^a,b  

^a SWISS FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF AQUATIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Switzerland)

^b ETH ZURICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Fecal sludge; Fecal sludge simulant; Feces; Feces simulants; Onsite wastewater treatment; Sewers

Indexed keywords

DISINTEGRATION; SANITATION; WASTEWATER TREATMENT;

FAECAL SLUDGE; FECAL SLUDGE SIMULANT; FECES; FECES SIMULANT; HUMAN FAECAL; HUMAN FECES; ON-SITE WASTEWATER TREATMENT; OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE; URBAN SANITATIONS;

SEWERS;

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY; FECES; LITERATURE REVIEW; RESEARCH WORK; SANITATION; SEWER NETWORK; SIMULATION; SLUDGE; WASTEWATER TREATMENT;

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION; FECES; HUMAN; PHYSICAL PARAMETERS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEWER; SLUDGE; URINE; WASTE WATER; CHEMISTRY; MICROBIOLOGY; PROCEDURES; SANITATION; SEWAGE;

FECES; HUMANS; SANITATION; SEWAGE; URINE; WASTE DISPOSAL, FLUID; WASTE WATER;

EID: 85042858576     PISSN: 00431354     EISSN: 18792448     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.12.063     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. Allegretti, J.R., Kassam, Z., Osman, M., Budree, S., Fischer, M., Kelly, C.R., The 5D framework: a clinical primer for fecal microbiota transplantation to treat clostridium difficile infection. Gastrointest. Endosc. 87:1 (2018), 18–29, 10.1016/j.gie.2017.05.036.
2. Apha, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 2005, American Public Health Association (APHA), Washington, DC, USA.
3. Appiah-Effah, E., Nyarko, K.B., Gyasi, S.F., Awuah, E., Faecal sludge management in low income areas: a case study of three districts in the Ashanti region of Ghana. J. Water, Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 4 (2014), 189–199.
4. Barman, S.M., Barrett, K.E., Boitano, S., Brooks, H., Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology. 23rd Edition, 2009, McGraw-Hill, USA.
5. Bassan, M., Tchonda, T., Yiougo, L., Zoellig, H., Mahamane, I., Mbéguéré, M., Strande, L., Characterization of faecal sludge during dry and rainy seasons in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Proceedings of the 36th WEDC International Conference, Nakuru, Kenya, 2013, 1–5.
6. Bassan, M., Nguyen, V.A., Holliger, C., Strande, L., Optimization of the Sampling and Laboratory Methods for Faecal Sludge. Sandec News, 2014, Sandec/Eawag http://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/EWM/Laboratory_Methods/optimization_sampling.pdf.
7. Bekkali, N., Hamers, S.L., Reitsma, J.B., Van Toledo, L., Benninga, M.A., Infant stool form scale: development and results. J. Pediatr. 154:4 (2009), 521–526.
8. Bhardwaj, R.C., Sharma, D.K., Bockris, J.O.'M., Report to NASA on Grant NAGW 1779, Aug., 1990.
9. Bösch, A., Schertenleib, R., Emptying On-site Excreta Disposal Systems. Report 03/85, 1985, International Reference Centre for Waste Disposal, EAWAG, Dübendorf, Switzerland.
10. Brown, D.M., Butler, D., Orman, N.R., Davies, J.W., Gross solids transport in small diameter sewers. Water Sci. Technol. 33:9 (1996), 25–30.
11. BSI, Greywater Systems BS 8525-1&2:2010. 2010, British Standards Institute.
12. Burns, J.R., Finlayson, B., A proposal for a standard reference artificial urine in in-vitro urolithiasis experiments. Invest. Urol. 18 (1980), 167–169.
13. Butler, D., Davies, J.W., Jefferies, C., Schütze, M., Gross solid transport in sewers. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.: Water Marit. Eng. 156:2 (2003), 175–183.
14. Cammarota, G., Ianiro, G., Tilg, H., Rajilić-Stojanović, M., Kump, P., Satokari, R., Sokol, H., Arkkila, P., Pintus, C., Hart, A., Segal, J., Aloi, M., Masucci, L., Molinaro, A., Scaldaferri, F., Gasbarrini, G., Lopez-Sanroman, A., Link, A., De Groot, P., De Vos, W.M., Högenauer, C., Malfertheiner, P., Mattila, E., European consensus conference on faecal microbiota transplantation in clinical practice (Conference Paper). Gut 66:4 (2017), 569–580.
15. Ciba-Geigy, A.G., Wissenschaftliche Tabellen Geigy. 1977, Ciba-Geigy Limited.
16. Colón, J., Forbis-Stokes, A.A., Deshusses, M.A., Anaerobic digestion of undiluted simulant human excreta for sanitation and energy recovery in less-developed countries. Energy Sustain. Dev. 29 (2015), 57–64.
17. Danso-Boateng, E., Holdich, R., Wheatley, A.D., Martin, S., Gyi, D.E., A toilet system based on hydrothermal carbonization. https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/11289, 2012.
18. Diaper, C., Toifl, M., Storey, M., Greywater Technology Testing Protocol, vol. 1835–0.95X, 2008, CSIRO: Water for a Healthy Country National Research Flagship, Victoria, Austrelia.
19. Diener, S., Semiyaga, S., Niwagaba, C.B., Muspratt, A.M., Gning, J.B., Mbéguéré, M., Ennin, J.E., Zurbrugg, C., Strande, L., A value proposition: resource recovery from faecal sludge—can it be the driver for improved sanitation?. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 88 (2014), 32–38.
20. Dinauer, R.C., Methods of Soil Analysis. 1982, ASA, SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin (USA).
21. Eastwood, M., Vegetable fibre: its physical properties. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 32:03 (1973), 137–143.
22. Eawag, Faecal sludge treatment. Eigenössische Anstalt für Wasserversorgung. 2002, Abwasserreinigung und Gewässerschutz (Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology/ETH), Dübendorf, Switzerland.
23. Friedler, E., Katz, I., Dosoretz, C.G., Chlorination and coagolation as pretreatment for greywater desalination. Desalination 222:1–3 (2008), 38–49.
24. Fry, L.J., Methane Digesters for Fuel Gas and Fertilizer. Woods Hole, 1973, The New Alchemy Institute, Massachusetts (accessed May 2017) http://journeytoforever.org/biofuel_library/MethaneDigesters/MDToC.html.
25. Garrow, J.S., James, W.P.T., Ralph, A., Human Nutrition and Dietetics. ninth ed., 1993, Longman Group, Edinburgh.
26. Garsed, K., Chernova, J., Hastings, M., Lam, C., Marciani, L., Singh, G., Henry, A., Hall, I., A randomised trial of ondansetron for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome with diarrhoea. Gut 63 (2014), 1617–1625.
27. German Industrial Norm/European Norm, WC-Becken und WC-Anlagen mit angeformtem Geruchsverschluss. Deutsche Fassung EN, 997, 2006 2003+A1.
28. Girovich, M.J., Biosolids Treatment and Management: Processes for Beneficial Use. 1996, Taylor & Francis.
29. Gold, M., Harada, H., Therrien, J.D., Nishida, T., Cunningham, M., Semiyaga, S., Fujii, S., Dorea, C., Nguyen, V.A., Strande, L., Cross-country analysis of faecal sludge dewatering. Environ. Technol., 2017, 10.1080/09593330.2017.1374472 (just-accepted).
30. Gold, M., Ddiba, D.I.W., Seck, A., Sekigongo, P., Diene, A., Diaw, S., Niang, S., Niwagaba, C., Strande, L., Faecal sludge as a solid industrial fuel: a pilot-scale study. J. Water, Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 7:2 (2017), 243–251.
31. Griffith, D.P., Musher, D.M., Itin, C., The primary cause of infection induced urinary stones. Invest. Urol. 13:5 (1976), 347–350.
32. Gross, A., Maimon, A., Alfiya, Y., Friedler, E., Greywater Reuse. 2015, Taylor and Francis Group, CRC Press.
33. Heinss, U., Larmie, S.A., Strauss, M., Characteristics of Faecal Sludges and Their Solids-liquid Separation. 1999, EAWAG/SANDEC, Janeiro.
34. Henze, M., Van Loosdrecht, M.C., Ekama, G.A., Brdjanovic, D., Biological Wastewater Treatment. 2008, IWA publishing.
35. Ilango, A., Lefebvre, O., Characterizing properties of biochar produced from simulated human feces and its potential applications. J. Environ. Qual. 45 (2016), 734–742.
36. Jönsson, H., Daky, A., Jeppsson, U., Hellström, D., Kärman, E., Composition of Urine, Faeces, Greywater and Biowaste for Utilisation in the URWARE Model. 2005, Gothenburg, Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology Publisher http://www.iea.lth.se/publications/Reports/LTH-IEA-7222.pdf (accessed May 2017).
37. Kaba, L., Hitchens, G.D., Bockris, J.O.'M., Elecrochemical Incineration of Wastes. Tech. Paper #891510, 1989.
38. Koottatep, T., Polprasert, C., Oanh, N.T.K., Montangero, A., Strauss, M., Sludges from on site sanitation systems-low-cost treatment alternatives. IWA Conference on Water and Wastewater Management for Developing Countries, 2001, October, 29–31.
39. Levitt, M.D., Duane, W.C., Floating stools—flatus versus fat. N. Engl. J. Med. 286 (1972), 973–975.
40. Lewis, S., Heaton, K., Stool form scale as a useful guide to intestinal transit time. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 32 (1997), 920–924.
41. Lind, B.B., Ban, Z., Bydén, S., Volume reduction and concentration of nutrients in human urine. Ecol. Eng. 16:4 (2001), 561–566.
42. Lovelady, H.G., Stork, E.J., An improved method for preparation of feces for bomb calorimetry. Clin. Chem. 16 (1970), 253–254.
43. Meher, K., Murthy, M., Gollakota, K., Psychrophilic anaerobic digestion of human waste. Bioresour. Technol. 50 (1994), 103–106.
44. Miller, A., Espanani, R., Junker, A., Hendr, D., Wilkinson, N., Bollinger, D., Abelleira-Pereira, J., Deshusses, M., Inniss, E., Jacoby, W., Supercritical water oxidation of a model fecal sludge without the use of a co-fuel. Chemosphere 141 (2015), 189–196.
45. Moe, C.L., Rheingans, R.D., Global challenges in water, sanitation and health. J. Water Health 4:S1 (2006), 41–57.
46. Monhol, F.A.F., Martins, M.F., Cocurrent combustion of human feces and polyethylene waste. Waste Biomass Valorizat. 6:3 (2015), 425–432, 10.1007/s12649-015-9359-2.
47. Moore, J.G., Jessop, L.D., Osbome, d.n., Gaschomatographic and mass spectrometric analysis of the odor of human feces. Gastroenterology 93 (1987), 1321–1329.
48. Muspratt, A.M., Nakato, T., Niwagaba, C., Dione, H., Kang, J., Stupin, L., Regulinski, J., Mbéguéré, M., Strande, L., Fuel potential of faecal sludge: calorific value results from Uganda, Ghana and Senegal. J. Water, Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 4:2 (2014), 223–230.
49. Nolan, J.D., Johnston, I.M., Pattni, S.S., Dew, T., Orchard, T., Walters, J.R., Diarrhea in Crohn's disease: investigating the role of the ileal hormone fibroblast growth factor 19. Journal Crohn's Colitis 9 (2015), 125–131.
50. NSF, NSF/ANSI 350–2011, Onsite Residential and Commercial Water Reuse Treatment Systems. 2011.
51. Onabanjo, T., Kolios, A.J., Patchigolla, K., Wagland, S.T., Fidalgo, B., Jurado, N., Cartmell, E., An experimental investigation of the combustion performance of human faeces. Fuel 184 (2016), 780–791, 10.1016/j.fuel.2016.07.077.
52. Onabanjo, T., Patchigolla, K., Wagland, S.T., Fidalgo, B., Kolios, A., McAdam, E., Cartmell, E., Energy recovery from human faeces via gasification: a thermodynamic equilibrium modelling approach. Energy Convers. Manag. 118 (2016), 364–376, 10.1016/j.enconman.2016.04.005.
53. Palumbo, G., D'acchioli, V., Disposable absorbent article having improved in-use storage capacity for low and medium low viscosity feces. Google Patents, 2001 US6190369 B1.
54. Park, J.A., Hur, J.M., Son, B.S., Lee, J.H., Effective treatment of night soil using anaerobic sequencing batch reactor (ASBR). Korean J. Chem. Eng. 18:4 (2001), 486–492.
55. Penn, R., Schütze, M., Alex, J., Friedler, E., Impacts of onsite greywater reuse on wastewater systems. Water Sci. Technol. 75:7–8 (2017), 1862–1872.
56. Penn R., Michalec F.G., Scheidegger A., Maurer M. Holzner M. Modelling and measuring physical disintegration of solids in sewers using image analysis and image velocimetry. (in preparation).
57. Penn R., Schütze M., Alex J., Friedler E. Tracking and simulation of gross solids transport in sewers. (Submitted).
58. Podichetty, J.T., Islam, M.W., Van, D., Foutch, G.L., Johannes, A., Viscous heating analysis of simulant feces by computational fluid dynamics and experimentation. J. Water, Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 4 (2014), 62–71.
59. Pronk, W., Palmquist, H., Biebow, M., Boller, M., Nanofiltration for the separation of pharmaceuticals from nutrients in source-separated urine. Water Res. 40:7 (2006), 1405–1412.
60. Putnam, D.F., Composition and Concentrative Properties of Human Urine. 1971.
61. Radford, J., Fenner, R., Characterisation and fluidisation of synthetic pit latrine sludge. J. Water, Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 3 (2013), 375–382.
62. Radford, J., Malinga, S., Drummond, G., Atayo, H., Whitesell, A., Sugden, S., Latrine desludging pump development using a simple test for simulant strength: a case study from Uganda. J. Water, Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 5 (2015), 620–624.
63. Reddy, S., Sanders, T., Owen, R., Thompson, M., Faecal pH, bile acid and sterol concentrations in premenopausal Indian and white vegetarians compared with white omnivores. Br. J. Nutr. 79:06 (1998), 495–500.
64. Rose, C., Parker, A., Jefferson, B., Cartmell, E., The characterization of feces and urine: a review of the literature to inform advanced treatment technology. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 (2015), 1827–1879.
65. Sato, H., Hirose, T., Klmura, T., Moriyama, Y., Yamashita, T., Nakashima, Y., Analysis of the malodours volatile substances of human wastes: feces and urine. J. Health Sci. 47:5 (2001), 483–490.
66. Sato, H., Morimatsu, H., Klmura, T., Moriyama, Y., Yamashita, T., Nakashima, Y., Analysis of the malodours volatile substances of human feces. J. Health Sci. 48:2 (2001), 179–185.
67. Schoebitz, L., Niwagaba, C.B., Strande, L., SFD Promotion Initiative. 2016, Sandec/Eawag, Kampala, Uganda.
68. Serio, M.A., Cosgrove, J.E., Wójtowicz, M.A., Wignarajah, K., Fisher, J., Pyrolysis yields from microwave-assisted heating of solid wastes. 42nd International Conference on Environmental Systems, San Diego, CA, 2012.
69. Singh, N., Isono, N., Srichuwong, S., Noda, T., Nishinari, K., Structural, thermal and viscoelastic properties of potato starches. Food Hydrocolloids 22:6 (2008), 979–988.
70. Snell, J.R., Anaerobic digestion: III. Anaerobic digestion of undiluted human excreta. Sew. works J. 15:4 (1943), 679–701.
71. Spellman, F.R., Incinerating Biosolids. 1997, Taylor & Francis.
72. Stachler, E., Kelty, C., Sivaganesan, M., Li, X., Bibby, K., Shanks, O.C., Quantitative CrAssphage PCR assays for human fecal pollution measurement. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51:16 (2017), 9146–9154, 10.1021/acs.est.7b02703.
73. Stern, B.A., Holtman, D.C., Disposable urinary and fecal waste containment product. Google Patents, 1987 US 5476459 A.
74. Still, D.A., Foxon, K., Tackling the Challenges of Full Pit Latrines. 2012, Water Research Commission.
75. Strande, L., Ronteltap, M., Brdjanovic, D., Faecal Sludge Management: Systems Approach for Implementation and Operation. 2014, IWA Publishing, London.
76. Strande L., Schoebitz L., Bischoff F., Ddiba D., Okello F., Englund M., Ward B.J. and Niwagaba C.B. Methods to Reliably Estimate Faecal Sludge Qualities and Quantities for the Design of Treatment Technologies and Management Solutions. (in preparation).
77. SuSanA, Sustainable Sanitation Alliance 2008 MISO (Soybean Paste). 14 March 2008 http://forum.susana.org/media/kunena/attachments/52/certificate.pdf (Accessed: 03 June 2017).
78. Swaffield, J.A., Galowin, L.S., The Engineering Design Drainage Systems. 1992, Ashgate.
79. Takahashi, T., Sakata, T., Large particles increase viscosity and yield stress of pig cecal contents without changing basic viscoelastic properties. J. Nutr. 132:5 (2002), 1026–1030.
80. Takahashi, T., Goto, M., Sakata, T., Viscoelastic properties of the small intestinal and caecal contents of the chicken. Br. J. Nutr. 91:6 (2004), 867–872.
81. Tennakoon, C.L.K., Bhardwaj, R.C., Bockris, J.O., Electrochemical treatment of human wastes in a packed bed reactor. J. Appl. Electrochem. 26:1 (1996), 18–29.
82. Thyberg, K.L., Tonjes, D.J., Gurevitch, J., Quantification of food waste disposal in the United States: a meta-analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49:24 (2015), 13946–13953.
83. Tilley, E., Atwater, J., Mavinic, D., Effects of storage on phosphorus recovery from urine. Environ. Technol. 29:7 (2008), 807–816.
84. Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lüthi, C., Reymond, Ph, Zurbrügg, C., Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Revised Edition, 2014, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Dübendorf, Switzerland 978-3-906484-57-0.
85. Udert, K.M., Wächter, M., Complete nutrient recovery from source-separated urine by nitrification and distillation. Water Res. 46:2 (2012), 453–464.
86. Udert, K.M., Larsen, T.A., Gujer, W., Fate of major compounds in source-separated urine. Water Sci. Technol. 54:11–12 (2006), 413–420.
87. Velkushanova K., Strande L., Ronteltap M., Koottatep T. and Brdanovic D. in preparation, Methods for Faecal Sludge Analyses. A forthcoming publication by IWA. (in preparation).
88. Veritec Consulting Inc & Koeller and Company, Maximum Performance (MaP) Testing Toilet Fixture Performance Testing Protocol, Version 4. 2010.
89. Ward, B.J., Yacob, T.W., Montoya, L.D., Evaluation of solid fuel char briquettes from human waste. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (2014), 9852–9858.
90. Ward, B.J., Morgenroth, E., Strande, L., Dewatering Characterisation of Synthetic Faecal Sludge Project, vol. 8, 2017, SANDEC news (18) http://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/EWM/Treatment_Technologies/Dewatering_characterisation_BJ_Ward.pdf.
91. Ward, B.J., Morgenroth, E., Strande, L., Water Hub @ NEST: faecal sludge dewatering for resource recovery [poster]. Exhibited at 2017 Eawag Symposium, Duebendorf, Switzerland, 2017 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320489990_Water_Hub_NEST_Faecal_Sludge_Dewatering_for_Resource_Recovery.
92. WaterSence, E.P.A., The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) WaterSense Program. 2014 https://www3.epa.gov/watersense/partners/toilets_final.html.
93. Woolley, S., Buckley, C., Pocock, J., Cottingham, R., Foutch, G., Some Rheological Properties of Fresh Human Feces with a Variation in Moisture Content & Rheological Modeling of Fresh Human Feces. 2013, 3rd SA YWP Conference, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa.
94. World Health Organization and UNICEF, Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines. 2017.
95. Wignarajah, K., Litwiller, E., Fisher, J.W., Hogan, J., Simulated human feces for testing human waste processing technologies in space systems. SAE Technical Paper, 2006.
96. Wilsenach, J.A., Schuurbiers, C.A.H., Van Loosdrecht, M.C.M., Phosphate and potassium recovery from source separated urine through struvite precipitation. Water Res. 41:2 (2007), 458–466.
97. Woolley, S.M., Buckley, C.A., Pocock, J., Foutch, G.L., Rheological modelling of fresh human faeces. J. Water, Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 4:3 (2014), 484–489.
98. Woolley, S.M., Cottingham, R.S., Pocock, J., Buckley, C.A., Shear rheological properties of fresh human faeces with different moisture content. WaterSA 40:2 (2014), 273–276, 10.4314/wsa.v40i2.9.
99. Wyman, J.B., Heaton, K.W., Manning, A.P., Wicks, A.C.B., Variability of colonic function in healthy subjects. Gut 19:2 (1978), 146–150.
100. Yeo R.S. and Welchel D.N., 1994. United State Patent Number 5356626, October 18.
101. Yermán, L., Hadden, R.M., Carrascal, J., Fabris, I., Cormier, D., Torero, J.L., Cheng, Y., Smouldering combustion as a treatment technology for faeces: exploring the parameter space. Fuel 147 (2015), 108–116, 10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.055.
102. Zuma, L., Development of a Synthetic Faecal Sludge. 2013, EPP Fellowship – EAWAG & EPFL, Eawag Partnership Program for Developing Countries.