Tensile and compression testing of bone

Mechanical Testing of Bone and the Bone-Implant Interface

Volumn , Issue , 1999, Pages 175-205

  Keller, Tony S ^a   Liebschner, Michael A K ^b  

^a University of Vermont   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85033561424     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (149)

1. American Society for Metals International, Mechanical testing, in Metals Handbook, 8, ASM, Materials Park, OH, 1989, 589.
2. Evans, F.G. and Lebow, M., The strength of human bone as revealed by engineering techniques, Am. J. Surg, 83, 326, 1952.
3. Gerard, G., Introduction to Structural Stability Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962, 19.
4. Roak, R.J. and Young, W.C., Formulas for Stress and Strain, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
5. Banse, X., Delloye, C., Cornu, O., and Bourgois, R., Comparative left-right mechanical testing of cancellous bone from normal femoral heads, J. Biomech., 29, 1249, 1996.
6. Bartley, M.H., Arnold, J.S., Haslam, R.K., and Jee, W.S., The relationship of bone strength and bone quantity in health, disease and aging, J. Gerontol., 21, 517, 1966.
7. Evans, F.G. and Band, S., Differences and relationships between the physical properties and the relationships between the physical properties and the microscopic structure of human femoral, tibial and fibular cortical bone, Am. J. Anat., 120, 79, 1967.
8. Gibson, L.J., The mechanical behavior of cancellous bone, J. Biomech, 18, 317, 1985.
9. Goldstein, S.A., The mechanical properties of trabecular bone: dependence on anatomic location and function, J. Biomech., 20, 1055, 1987.
10. Martin, R.B. and Atkinson, P.J., Age and sex-related changes in the structure and strength of the human femoral shaft, J. Biomech., 10, 223, 1977.
11. Welch, D.O., The composite structure of bone and its response to mechanical stress, Recent Adv. Eng. Sci., 5, 245, 1970.
12. ASTM, Standard: Standard test methods of compression testing of metallic materials at room temperature, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM, Philadelphia, E9-89a, 1983.
13. ASTM, Standard: Standard test method for compressive properties of rigid cellular plastics, D1621, ASTM, Philadelphia, 1991, 11.
14. ASTM, Standard: Standard test method for compressive properties of rigid plastics, D695, ASTM, Philadelphia, 1991, 276.
15. ASTM, Standard: Standard testing for compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens, C39, ASTM, Philadelphia, 1991, 86.
16. Linde, F., Elastic and viscoelastic properties of trabecular bone by a compression testing approach, Dan. Med. Bull., 41, 119, 1994.
17. Keller, T.S., Hansson, T.H., Abram, A.C., et al., Regional variations in the compressive properties of lumbar vertebral trabeculae. Effects of disc degeneration, Spine, 14, 1012, 1989.
18. Keaveny, T.M., Borchers, R.D., Gibson, L.J., and Hayes, W.C., Trabecular bone modulus and strength can depend on specimen geometry, J. Biomech., 26, 991, 1993.
19. Carter, D.R. and Spengler, D.M., Mechanical properties and composition of cortical bone, Clin. Orthop., 135, 192, 1978.
20. Cowin, S.C., Mechanics of materials, in Bone Mechanics, Cowin, S.C., Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1989, 15.
21. Currey, J.D., The mechanical properties of bone, Clin. Orthop., 73, 210, 1970.
22. Hollister, S.J., Fyhrie, D.P., Jepsen, K.J., and Goldstein, S.A., Application of homogenization theory to the study of trabecular bone mechanics, J. Biomech., 24, 825, 1991.
23. Mosekilde, Li., Viidik, A., and Mosekilde, Le., Correlation between the compressive strength of iliac and vertebral trabecular bone in normal individuals, Bone, 6, 291, 1985.
24. Mosekilde, Li., Mosekilde, Le., and Danielsen, C.C., Biomechanical competence of vertebral trabecular bone in relation to ash density and age in normal individuals, Bone, 8, 79, 1987.
25. Behrens, J.C., Walker, P.S., and Shoje, H., Variations in strength and structure of cancellous bone at the knee, J. Biomech., 7, 201, 1974.
26. Cowin, S.C., The mechanical properties of cancellous bone, in Bone Mechanics, Cowin, S.C., Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1989, 129.
27. Goldstein, S.A., Wilson, D.L., Sonstegard, D.A., and Matthews, L.S., The mechanical properties of human tibial trabecular bone as a function of metaphyseal location, J. Biomech., 16, 965, 1983.
28. Lindahl, O., Mechanical properties of dried defatted spongy bone, Acta Orthop. Scand., 47, 11, 1976.
29. Panjabi, M.M., Krag, M.K., Summers, M.K., and Videman, T., Biomechanical time-tolerance of fresh cadaveric human tissue specimens, J. Orthop. Res., 3, 292, 1985.
30. Pelker, R.R., Friedlaender, G.E., Markham, T.C., et al., Effects of freezing and freeze-drying on the biomechanical properties of rat bone, J. Orthop. Res., 1, 405, 1984.
31. Sonstegard, D.A. and Matthews, L.S., Mechanical property dependence on storage technique and local of knee joint trabecular bone, Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc., 2, 283, 1977.
32. Komender, A., Influences of preservation on some mechanical properties of human Haversian bone, Mater. Med. Pol., 8, 13, 1976.
33. Linde, F. and Sprensen, H.C., The effect of different storage methods on mechanical properties of trabecular bone, J. Biomech., 26, 1249, 1993.
34. Sedlin, E.D. and Hirsch, C., Factors affecting the determination of the physical properties of femoral cortical bone, Acta Orthop. Scand, 37, 29, 1966.
35. Ashman, R.B., Experimental techniques, in Bone Mechanics, Cowin, S.C., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1989, 75.
36. McElhaney, J.H., Fogle, J., Byars, E., and Weaver, G., Effect of embalming on the mechanical properties of beef bone, J. Appl. Physiol., 19, 12334, 1964.
37. Evans, F.G., Mechanical Properties of Bone, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1973.
38. Hvid, I. and Hansen, S.L., Trabecular bone strength patterns at the proximal tibial epiphysis, J. Orthop. Res., 3, 464, 1985.
39. Keller, T.S., Predicting the mechanical behavior of bone, J. Biomech., 27, 1159, 1994.
40. Linde, F., Hvid, I., and Madsen, F., The effect of specimen size and geometry on the mechanical behavior of trabecular bone, J. Biomech., 25, 359, 1992.
41. Carter, D.R. and Hayes, W.C., Compact bone fatigue damage, Clin. Orthop., 127, 265, 1977.
42. Odgaard, A., Hvid, I., and Linde, F., Compressive axial strain distribution in cancellous bone specimen, J. Biomech, 22, 829, 1989.
43. Rohlmann, A., Zilch, H., Bergmann, G., and Koebel, R., Material properties of femoral cancellous bone in axial loading. Part I: Time independent properties, Arch. Orthop. Trauma Surg., 97, 95, 1980.
44. Hansson, T.H., Keller, T.S., and Panjabi, M.M., A study of the compressive properties of lumbar vertebral trabeculae: effects of tissue characteristics, Spine, 12, 56, 1987.
45. Hvid, I., Mechanical strength of trabecular bone at the knee, Dan. Med. Bull., 35, 345, 1988.
46. Keaveny, T.M., Borchers, R.E., Gibson, L.J., and Hayes, W.C., Theoretical analysis of the experimental artifact in trabecular bone compressive modulus, J. Biomech., 26, 599, 1993.
47. Tanner, K.E., Sharp, D.J., Turner, S., and Bonfield, W., Specimen length and the measured mechanical properties of trabecular bone, Trans. World Congr. Biomech., 1, 131, 1990.
48. Zhu, M., Keller, T.S., and Spengler, D.M., Effects of specimen load-bearing and free surface layers on the compressive mechanical properties of cellular materials, J. Biomech., 27, 57, 1994.
49. Choi, K., Kuhn, J.L., Ciarelli, M.J., and Goldstein, S.A., The elastic moduli of subchondral, trabecular, and cortical bone tissue and the size-dependency of cortical bone modulus, J. Biomech., 23, 1103, 1990.
50. Cowin, S.C. and Mehrabidi, M.M., Identification of the elastic symmetry of bone and other materials, J. Biomech., 22, 503, 1989.
51. Harrigan, T.P., Jasty, M., Mann, R.W., and Harris, W.H., Limitations of the continuum assumptions in cancellous bone, J. Biomech., 21, 269, 1988.
52. Bachus, K.N., Bloebaum, R.D., and Hofmann, A.A., Minimum trabecular width: the biomechanical limit of load bearing cancellous bone, Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc., 15, 54, 1990.
53. Sumner, D.R., Turner, T.M., and Galante, J.O., Symmetry of the canine femur: implications for experimental sample size requirements, J. Orthop. Res., 6, 758, 1988.
54. Tanner, K.E., Harris, J.R., Evans, G.P., and Bonfield, W., Assessment of parameters which affect the measured mechanical properties of human cancellous bone, Proc. Meet. Eur. Soc. Biomech., 8, 66, 1992.
55. Currey, J.D., The effects of drying and re-wetting on some mechanical properties of cortical bone, J. Biomech., 21, 439, 1988.
56. Currey, J.D., Physical characteristics affecting the tensile failure properties of cortical bone, J. Biomech., 23, 837, 1990.
57. Jameson, M.W., Hood, J.A., and Tidmarsh, B.G., The effects of dehydration and rehydration on some mechanical properties of human dentine, J. Biomech., 26, 1055, 1993.
58. Williams, J.L. and Johnson, W.J., Elastic constants of composites formed from PMMA bone cement and anisotropic bovine tibial cancellous bone, J. Biomech., 22, 673, 1989.
59. Padawer, G.E. and Beecher, N., On the strength and stiffness of planar reinforced plastic resins, Polym. Eng. Sci, 10, 185, 1994.
60. Gray, R.J. and Korbacher, G.K., Compressive fatigue behavior of bovine compact bone, J. Biomech., 7, 287, 292.
61. Reilly, S.B. and Burstein, A.H., The elastic and ultimate properties of compact bone tissue, J. Biomech., 8, 393, 1975.
62. Carter, D.R. and Hayes, W.C., The compressive behavior of bone as a two phase porous structure, J. Bone Joint Surg., 59A, 954, 1977.
63. Turner, C.H., Yield behavior of bovine cancellous bone, J. Biomech. Eng., 111, 256, 1989.
64. Carter, D.R., Caler, W.E., Spengler, D.M., and Frankel, V.H., Fatigue behavior of adult cortical bone: the influence of mean strain and strain range, Acta Orthop. Scand, 52, 481, 1981.
65. Crowninshield, R.D. and Pope, M.H., The response of compact bone in tension at various strain rate, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 2, 217, 1974.
66. Currey, J.D., The effects of strain rate, reconstruction, and mineral content on some mechanical properties of bovine bone, J. Biomech., 8, 81, 1975.
67. Ducheyne, P., Heymans, L., Martens, M., et al., The mechanical behavior of intracondylar cancellous bone of the femur at different loading rates, J. Biomech., 10, 747, 1977.
68. Kafka, V., On hydraulic strengthening of bones, Biorheology, 20, 789, 1983.
69. Liebschner, M.A.K. and Keller, T.S., Cortical Bone Exhibits Hydraulic Strengthening, 44th Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society, New Orleans, LA, 23, 559, 1998.
70. Panjabi, M.M., White, A.A., III, and Southwick, W.O., Mechanical properties of bone as a function of rate of deformation, J. Bone Joint Surg., 55A, 322, 1973.
71. Ciarelli, M.J., Goldstein, S.A., Kuhn, J.L., et al., Evaluation of the orthogonal mechanical properties and density of human trabecular bone from the major metaphyseal regions with materials testing and computed tomography, J. Orthop. Res., 9, 674, 1991.
72. Dempster, W.T. and Liddicoat, R., Compact bone as a non-isotropic material, Am. J. Anat., 91, 331, 1952.
73. Fondrik, M., Bahniuk, E., Davy, D.T., and Michaels, C., Some viscoelastic characteristics of bovine and human cortical bone, J. Biomech., 21, 623, 1988.
74. Rice, J.C., Cowin, S.C., and Bowman, J.A., On the dependence of the elastic and strength of cancellous bone on apparent density, J. Biomech., 21, 155, 1988.
75. Rohl, L., Larsen, E., Linde, F., et al., Tensile and compressive properties of cancellous bone, J. Biomech., 24, 1143, 1991.
76. Stone, J.L., Beaupre, G.S., and Hayes, W.C., Multiaxial strength characteristics of trabecular bone, J. Biomech., 16, 743, 1983.
77. Ashman, R.B. and Rho, J.Y., Elastic moduli of trabecular bone material, J. Biomech., 21, 177, 1988.
78. Bird, F., Becker, H., Healer, J., and Messer, M., Experimental determination of the mechanical properties of bone, Aerospace Med, 39, 44, 1968.
79. Reilly, S.B., Burstein, A.H., and Frankel, V.H., The elastic modulus of bone, J. Biomech., 7, 271, 1974.
80. Katz, J.L., Anisotropy of Young’s modulus of bone, Nature (London), 283, 106, 1980.
81. Klever, F.J., Klumpert, R., Horenberg, J., et al., Global mechanical properties of trabecular bone: experimental determination and prediction from a structural model, in Biomechanics: Current Interdisciplinary Research, Perren, S.M. and Schneider, E., Eds., Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 1985, 167.
82. Tsai, S.W. and Wu, E.M., A general theory of strength for anisotropic material, J. Compos. Mater., 5, 58, 1971.
83. Burstein, A.H., Currey, J.D., Frankel, V.H., and Reilly, D.T., The ultimate properties of bone tissue: the effects of yielding, J. Biomech., 5, 35, 1973.
84. Jonas, J., Burns, J., Able E.W., et al., A technique for the tensile testing of demineralized bone, J. Biomech, 26, 271, 1993.
85. Katsamanis, F. and Raftopoulos, D.D., Determination of mechanical properties of human femoral cortical bone by the Hopkinson bar stress technique, J. Biomech., 23, 1173, 1990.
86. Knauss, P., Material properties and strength behavior of spongy bone tissue at the proximal human femur (Part I), Biomed. Tech., 26, 200, 1981 [translated from German].
87. Lewis, J.L. and Goldsmith, W., The dynamic fracture and prefracture response of compact bone by split Hopkinson bar methods, J. Biomech., 8, 27, 1975.
88. Mente, P.L. and Lewis, J.L., Experimental method for measurement of the elastic modulus of trabecular bone tissue, J. Orthop. Res., 7, 456, 1989.
89. Tarnopol’skii, I.M. and Kincis, T., Static Test Method for Composites, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1985.
90. Yahia, L.H., Drouin, G., and Duval, P., A methodology for mechanical measurements of technical constants of trabecular bone, Eng. Med, 17, 169, 1988.
91. Carter, D.R., Schwab, G.H., and Spengler, D.M., Tensile fracture of cancellous bone, Acta Orthop. Scand., 51, 733, 1980.
92. Turner, C.H. and Cowin, S.C., Errors induced by off-axis measurement of the elastic properties of bone, J. Biomech. Eng., 110, 213, 1988.
93. Hayes, W.C. and Black, D., Post-yield energy absorption characteristics of trabecular bone. In 1979 Biomechanics Symposium, Van Buskirk, W.C., Ed., ASME, New York, 1979, 177.
94. Hodgkinson, R. and Currey, J.D., The effect of variation in structure on the Young’s modulus of cancellous bone: a comparison of human and non-human material, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H: J. Eng. Med., 204, 115, 1990.
95. Inoue, N., Sakakida, K., Yamashita, F., et al., The elasto-plastic behavior of bovine cancellous bone under tensile loading, Proc. Meet. Eur. Soc. Biomech., 6, 8A, 1988.
96. Keaveny, T.M., Guo, X.E., Wachtel, E.F., et al., Trabecular bone exhibits fully linear elastic behavior and yields at low strain, J. Biomech., 27, 1127, 1994.
97. Kopperdahl, D.L. and Keaveny, T.M., Damage behavior of vertebral sections is dependent on applied strains and dominated by trabecular bone, in Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc., 34, 1033, 1999.
98. Caler, W.E. and Carter, D.R., Bone creep-fatigue damage accumulation, J. Biomech., 22, 625, 1989.
99. Carter, D.R. and Hayes, W.C., Fatigue life of compact bone — I. Effects of stress amplitude, temperature and density, J. Biomech, 9, 27, 1976.
100. Chamay, A., Mechanical and morphological aspects of experimental overload and fatigue in bone, J. Biomech., 3, 263, 1970.
101. Keller, T.S., Lovin, J.D., Spengler, D.M., and, Carter, D.R., Fatigue of immature baboon cortical bone, J. Biomech, 18, 297, 1985.
102. Michel, M.C., Xiang-Dong, E.G., Gibson, L.J., et al., Compressive fatigue behavior of bovine trabecular bone, J. Biomech., 26, 453, 1993.
103. Wachtel, E.F. and Keaveny, T.M., The effects of unloading conditions and strain-rate on the residual properties of damaged trabecular bone, ASME Adv. Bioeng, BED, 31, 159, 1995.
104. Wagner, H.D. and Weiner, S., On the relationship between the microstructure of bone and its mechanical stiffness, J. Biomech., 25, 1311, 1992.
105. Carter, D.R. and Caler, W.E., Cycle dependent and time dependent bone fracture with repeated loading, J. Biomech. Eng., 105, 166, 1983.
106. Lafferty, J.F. and Raju, P.V., The influence of stress frequency on the fatigue strength of cortical bone, J. Biomech Eng., 101, 112, 1979.
107. Choi, K. and Goldstein, S.A., A comparison of the fatigue behavior of human trabecular and cortical bone tissue, J. Biomech., 25, 1371, 1992.
108. Schaffler, M.B., Radin, E.L., and Burr, D.B., Long-term fatigue behavior of compact bone at low strain magnitude and rate, Bone, 11, 321, 1990.
109. McBroom, R.J., Hayes, W.C., Edwards, W.T., et al., Prediction of the vertebral body compressive fracture using quantitative computed tomography, J. Bone Joint Surg, 67A, 1206, 1985.
110. Keller, T.S., Spengler, D.M., and Carter, D.R., The influence of exercise on maturing rat long bone structural and material properties, Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc., 29, 60, 1983.
111. Keller, T.S., Spengler, D.M., and Carter, D.R., Geometric, elastic, and structural properties of maturing rat femora, J. Orthop. Res., 4, 57, 1986.
112. Bell, G.H., Dunbar, O., Beck, J.S., and Gibb, A., Variations in strength of vertebrae with age and their relations to osteoporosis, Calcif. Tissue Res., 1, 75, 1967.
113. Hansson, T.H., Keller, T.S., and Spengler, D.M., Mechanical behavior of the human lumbar spine. II. Fatigue strength during dynamic compressive loading, J. Orthop. Res., 5, 479, 1987.
114. Hansson, T., Roos, B., and Nachemson, A., The bone mineral content and ultimate compressive strength of lumbar vertebrae, Spine, 5, 46, 1980.
115. Hardy, W.G., Lissner, H.R., Webster, J.E., and Gurdijian, E.S., Repeated loading tests of the lumbar, Spine Surg. Forum, 9, 690, 1958.
116. Keller, T.S., Spengler, D.M., and Hansson, T.H., Mechanical behavior of the human lumbar spine. I. Creep analysis during static compressive loading, J. Orthop. Res., 5, 467, 1987.
117. McCubbrey, D.A., Cody, D.D., Kuhn, J.L., et al., Static and fatigue failure properties of thoracic and lumbar vertebral bodies and their regional density, Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc., 15, 178, 1990.
118. Derwin, K.A., Soslowsky, L.J., Green, W.D., and Elder, S.H., A new optical system for the determination of deformations and strains: calibration characteristics and experimental results, J. Biomech., 27, 1277, 1994.
119. Woo, S.L., Gomez, M.A., Seguchi, Y., et al., Measurement of mechanical properties of ligament substance from a bone-ligament-bone preparation, J. Orthop. Res., 1, 22, 1983.
120. Woo, S.L., Danto, M.I., and Ohland, K.J., The use of a laser micrometer system to determine the cross-sectional shape and area of ligaments: a comparative study with two existing methods, J. Biomech. Eng., 112, 426, 1990.
121. Wright, T.M. and Hayes, W.C., Strain gauge application on compact bone, J. Biomech, 12, 471, 1979.
122. Wright, T.M., Vosburgh, F., and Burstein, A.H., Permanent deformation of compact bone monitored by acoustic emission, J. Biomech., 14, 405, 1981.
123. Bonfield, W., and Li, C.H., The temperature dependence of the deformation of bone, J. Biomech., 1, 323, 1968.
124. Brear, K., Currey, J.D., Rainers, S., and Smith, K.J., Density and temperature effects on some mechanical properties of cancellous bone, Eng. Med, 17, 163, 1988.
125. Turner, C.H. and Burr, D.B., Basic biomechanical measurements of bone: a tutorial, Bone, 14, 595, 1993.
126. Wall, J.C., Chatterji, S., and Jeffery, J.W., On the origin of scatter in results of human bone strength tests, Med. Biol. Eng., 8, 171, 1970.
127. Linde, F., Hvid, I., and Jensen, N.C., Material properties of cancellous bone in repetitive axial loading, Eng. Med, 14, 173, 1985.
128. Linde, F. and Hvid, I., Stiffness behavior of trabecular bone specimens, J. Biomech., 20, 82, 1987.
129. Linde, F., Gothgen, C.B., Hvid, I., et al., Mechanical properties of trabecular bone by a nondestructive compression testing approach, Eng. Med., 17, 23, 1988.
130. Linde, F. and Hvid, I., The effect of constraint on the mechanical behavior of trabecular bone specimens, J. Biomech., 22, 485, 1989.
131. Linde, F., Hvid, I., and Pongsoipetch, B., Energy absorptive properties of human trabecular bone specimens during axial compression, J. Orthop. Res., 7, 432, 1989.
132. Burstein, A.H. and Frankel, V.H., The visco-elastic properties of some biological materials, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 146, 158, 1968.
133. Madsen, F., Odgaard, A., and Linde, F., The consequences of compression strain level on energy absorption in trabecular bone specimens, Proc. Meet. Eur. Soc. Biomech, 6, 7A, 1988.
134. Lakes, R.S., Katz, J.L., and Sternstein, S.S., Viscoelastic properties of wet cortical bone — I. Torsional and biaxial studies, J. Biomech., 12, 657, 1979.
135. Kaplan, S.J., Hayes, W.C., Stone, J.L., and Beaupre, G.S., Tensile strength of bovine trabecular bone, J. Biomech., 18, 732, 1985.
136. Linde, F., N0rgaard, P., Hvid, I., et al., Mechanical properties of trabecular bone. Dependency on stain rate, J. Biomech., 24, 803, 1991.
137. Saha, S. and Hayes, W.C., Tensile impact properties of human compact bone, J. Biomech., 9, 243, 1976.
138. Schaffler, M.B., Radin, E.L., and Burr, D.B., Mechanical and morphological effects of strain-rate on fatigue of compact bone, Bone, 10, 207, 1989.
139. Vrijhoef, M.M. and Driessens, F.C., On the interaction between specimen and testing machine in the mechanical testing procedures, J. Biomech, 4, 233, 1971.
140. Filon, L.N., On the elastic equilibrium of circular cylinders under certain practical systems of load, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London A, 198, 147, 1992.
141. Brown, T.D. and Ferguson, A.B., Mechanical property distributions in the cancellous bone of the human proximal femur, Acta Orthop. Scand., 51, 429, 1980.
142. Odgaard, A., and Linde, F., The underestimation of Young’s modulus in compression testing of cancellous bone specimens, J. Biomech, 24, 691, 1991.
143. Allard, R.N. and Ashman, R.B., A comparison between cancellous bone compressive moduli determined from surface strain and total specimen deflection, Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc., 16, 151, 1991.
144. Aspden, R.M., Constraining the lateral dimensions of uniaxially loaded materials increases the calculated strength and stiffness: application to muscle and bone, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med, 1, 100, 1990.
145. Guo, X.E., Gibson, L.J., and McMahon, T.A., Fatigue of trabecular bone: avoiding end-crushing artifacts, Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc, 18, 584, 1993.
146. Keaveny, T.M., Pinilla, T.P., Crawford, R.P., et al., Systematic and random errors in compression testing of trabecular bone, J. Orthop. Res., 15, 101, 1997.
147. Keaveny, T.M., Wachtel, E.F., Ford, C.M., and Hayes, W.C., Differences between the tensile and compressive strength of bovine tibial trabecular bone depend on modulus, J. Biomech., 27, 1137, 1994.
148. Carter, D.R. and Hayes, W.C., Bone compressive strength: the influence of density and strain-rate, Science, 194, 1174, 1976.
149. Kuhn, J.L., Goldstein, S.A., Ciarelli, M.J., and Matthews, L.S., The limitation of canine trabecular bone as a model for human: a biomechanical study, J. Biomech, 22, 95, 1989.