Canine Idiopathic Dilated Cardiomyopathy. Part I: Aetiology, Clinical Characteristics, Epidemiology and Pathology

Veterinary Journal

Volumn 162, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 92-107

  Tidholm, A ^a   Haggstrom J ^c   Borgarelli, M ^c   Tarducci, A ^b  

^a Albano Animal Hospital of Stockholm   (Sweden)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TURIN   (Italy)

^c NONE

Author keywords

Aetiology; Dilatedcardiomyopathy; Dog; Epidemiology; Heart disease; Histopathology; Pathogenesis; Pathophysiology

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ANIMAL DISEASE; CONGESTIVE CARDIOMYOPATHY; DOG; DOG DISEASE; PATHOLOGY; PREVALENCE; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; CARDIOMYOPATHY, DILATED; DOG DISEASES; DOGS; PREVALENCE;

EID: 85031480414     PISSN: 10900233     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1053/tvjl.2001.0571     Document Type: Review

References (186)

1. ABRAMSON, S. V., BURKE, J. F., KELLY, J. J., KITCHEN, J. G., DOUGHERTY, M. J., YIH, D. F., MCGEEHIN, F. C., SHUCK, J. W. & PHIAMBOLIS, T. P. (1992). Pulmonary hypertension predicts mortality and morbidity in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. Annals of Internal Medicine 116, 888-95.
2. ARCHARD, L. C., BOWLES, N. E., OLSEN, E. G. J. & RICHARDSON, P. J. (1987). Detection of persistent cox-sackie B virus RNA in dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis. European Heart Journal 8, 437-40.
3. ARETZ, H. T. (1986). Diagnosis of myocarditis by endocardial biopsy. Medical Clinics of North America 70, 1215.
4. ARETZ, H. T., BILLINGHAM, M. E., EDWARDS, W. D., FACTOR, S. M., FALLON, J. T., FENOGLIO, J. J., OLSEN, E. C. G. & SHOEN, F. J. (1987). Myocarditis. A histopathologic definition and classification. American Journal of Cardiovascular Pathology 1, 3.
5. ARMSTRONG, P. W., STOPPS, T. P. & FORD, S. E. (1986). Rapid ventricular pacing in the dog: pathophysiological studies of heart failure. Circulation 74, 1075.
6. ATKINS, C. E. (1991). The role of noncardiac disease in the development and precipitation of heart failure. The Veterinary Clinics of North America Small Animal Practice 21, 1035-1080.
7. ATKINS, C. E. & SNYDER, P. S. (1992). Systolic time intervals and their derivatives for evaluation of cardiac function. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 6, 55-63.
8. ATWELL, R. B. & KELLY, W. R. (1980). Canine parvovirus: a cause of chronic myocardial fibrosis and adolescent congestive heart failure. Journal of Small Animal Practice 21, 609-20.
9. AUTORE, C., FIORITO, S., PELLICCIA, A., CASELLI, G., FRAGOLA, P. V., PICELLI, A., MACCARI, A. M., POCOBELLI, D., CANNATA, D. & SANGIORGI, M. (1988). Antimitochondrial autoantibodies in myocardial hypertrophy: Comparison between hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, hypertensive heart disease, and athlete's heart. American Heart Journal 116, 496-500.
10. BADORFF, C., LEE, G. H., LAMPHEAR, B. J., MARTONE, M. E., CAMPBELL, K. P., RHOADS, R. E. & KNOWLTON, K. U. (1999). Enteroviral protease 2A cleaves dystrophin: Evidence of cytoskeletal disruption in an acquired cardiomyopathy. Nature Medicine 5, 320-6.
11. BALKMAN, C., OJAMAA, K. & KLEIN, I. (1992). Time course of the in vivo effect of thyroid hormone action in the cell. Endocrinology 130, 2001-6.
12. BARR, S. C. (1991). American trypanosomiasis in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 13, 745-52.
13. BARR, S. C., SIMPSON, R. M., SCHMIDT, S. P., BUNGE, M. M., AUTHEMENT, J.M. & LOZANO, F. (1989). Chronic dilatative myocarditis caused by Trypanosoma cruzi in two dogs. The Compendium of Continuing Education 195, 1237-9.
14. BECKER, A., HEIJMANS, C. & ESSED, C. (1991). Chronic non-ischaemic congestive heart disease and endomyocardial biopsies. Worth the extra? European Heart Journal 12, 218-23.
15. BONAGURA, J. D., BUSSADORI, C. & CHURCH, D. (1995). The international Small Animal Cardiac Health Council. Recommendations for the diagnosis of heart disease and the treatment of heart failure in small animals. In: Manual of canine and feline cardiology. Ed Miller, M. S., & Tilley L. P. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 469-90.
16. BORGARELLLI, M., TARDUCCI, A., BUSSADORI, C., SANTILLI, R. A. & PRIANO, L. (1997). Echocardiographic and echoDoppler prognostic indicators in dogs with dilated cardiomyopathy. ESVIM 7th Annual Congress, Lyon, France, pp. 25-8.
17. BOUGH, E. W., CROWLEY, W. F., RIDGWAY, E. C., WALKER, H., MALOOF, F., MYERS, G. S. & DANIELS, G. H. (1978). Myocardial function in hypothyroidism. Relation to disease severity and response to treatment. Archives of Internal Medicine 138, 1476-80.
18. BOWLES, N. E., ROSE, M. L., TAYLOR, P., BANNER, N. R., MORGAN-CAPNER, P., CUNNINGHAM, L., ARCHARD, L. C. & YACOUB, M. H. (1989). End-Stage Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Persistence of enterovirus RNA in myocardium at cardiac transplantation and lack of immune response. Circulation 80, 1128-36.
19. BRIGDEN, W. (1957). Uncommon myocardial diseases; The non-coronary cardiomyopathies. Lancet Dec 14, 1180-4.
20. CAFORIO, A. L. P., BONIFASCIO, E., STEWART, J. T., NEGLIA, D., PARODI, O., BOTTAZZO, G. F. & MCKENNA, W.J. (1990). Novel organ-specific circulating cardiac antibodies in dilated cardiomyopathy. Journal of American College of Cardiology 15, 1527-34.
21. CAFORIO, A. L. P., GRAZZINI, M., MANN, J. M. & KEELING, P. J. (1992). Identification of alpha-and beta-cardiac myosin heavy chain isoforms as major autoantigens in dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 85, 1734-42.
22. CALVERT, C. A. (1986). Dilated congestive cardiomyopathy in Doberman Pinschers. The Compendium of Continuing Education 8, 417-29.
23. CALVERT, C. A. (2000). CVT Update: Doberman Pinscher occult cardiomyopathy. In: Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy XIII; Small animal practice. Ed Bonagura, J. D. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 756-60.
24. CALVERT, C. A. & BROWN, J. (1986). Use of M-mode echocardiography in the diagnosis of congestive cardiomyopathy in Doberman Pinschers. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 189, 293-7.
25. CALVERT, C. A., CHAPMAN, W. L. & TOAL, R. L. (1982). Congestive cardiomyopathy in Doberman Pinscher dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 181, 598-602.
26. CALVERT, C. A., HALL, G., JACOBS, G. & PICKUS, C. (1997a). Clinical and pathologic findings in Doberman pinschers with occult cardiomyopathy that died suddenly or developed congestive heart failure: 54 cases (1984-1991). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 210, 505-11.
27. CALVERT, C. A., JACOBS, G. J., MEDLEAU, L., PICKUS, C. W., BROWN, J. & MCDEMOTT, M. (1998). Thyroid-stimulating hormone stimulation tests in cardiomyopathic Doberman Pinschers: A retrospective study. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 12, 343-8.
28. CALVERT, C. A., PICKUS, C. W., JACOBS, G. J. & BROWN, J. (1997b). Signalement, survival and prognostic factors in Doberman Pinschers with end-stage cardiomyopathy. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 11, 323-6.
29. CAMBRIDGE, G., MAC ARTHUR, C. G. C., WATERSON, A. P., GOODWIN, J. F. & OAKLEY, C. M. (1979). Antibodies to Coxsackie B viruses in congestive cardiomyopathy. British Heart Journal 41, 692-6.
30. CARPENTER, J. L., ROBERTS, R. M., HARPSTER, N. K. & KING, N. W. (1980). Intestinal and cardiopulmonary forms of parvovirus infection in a litter of pups. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 176, 1269-73.
31. CHASTIAN, C. B. & PANCIERA, D. L. (1995). Hypothyroid diseases. In: Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine 4th ed. Ed Ettinger, S. J. W. B Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 1487-1500.
32. COBB, M. A., ODEDRA, R., LATIF, N. & DUNN, M. J. (1994). Use of indirect immunofluorescence and Western blotting to assess the role of circulating antimyocardial antibodies in dogs with dilated cardiomyoipathies. Research in Veterinary Science 56, 245-51.
33. COBB, M. A., BROWNLIE, S. E., PIDDUCK, H. G. & BATT, R. M. (1996). Evidence for genetic involvement in dilated cardiomyopathy in the Irish Wolfhound. Annual Congress of BSAVA, Birmingham, pp. 215.
34. CORY, C. R., SHEN, H. & O'BRIEN, P. J. (1994). Compensatory asymmetry in down-regulation and inhibition of the myocardial Ca2+ cycle in congestive heart failure produced in dogs by idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy and rapid ventricular pacing. Journal of Molecular Cell Cardiology26, 173-84.
35. CULLEN, M. J. & MASTALGIA, F. L. (1982). Pathological reactions in skelelat muscle. In: Skeletal muscle pathology. Ed MASTALGIA, F.L., & WALTON, J. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, pp. 88-139.
36. CUNNINGHAM, M. W., ANTONE, S. M., GULIZIA, J. M., MCMANUS, B. M., FISCHETTI, V. A. & GAUNTT, C. J. (1992). Cytotoxic and viral neutralizing antibodies crossreact with streptococcal M protein, enteroviruses, and human cardiac myosin. Proceedings of National Academy of Science 89, 1320-4.
37. D'AGNOLO, A., LUCIANI, G. B., MAZZUCCO, A., GALLUCCI, V. & SALVIATI, G. (1992). Contractile properties and Ca2+ release activity of the sarcoplasmatic reticulum in dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 85, 518-25.
38. d'AMATi, G., DI GIOIA, C. R., GIORDANO, C. & GALLO, P. (2000). Myocyte transdifferentiation. A possible pathogenetic mechanism for arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Archives of Pathology Laboratory Medicine 124, 287-90.
39. DAMBACH, D. M., LANNON, A., SLEEPER, M. M. & BUCHANAN, J. (1999). Familial dilated cardiomyopathy of young Portuguese water dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 13, 65-71.
40. DAVIES, M. J. (1984). The cardiomyopathies: a review of terminology, pathology and pathogenesis. Histopathology 8, 363-93.
41. DAY, M. J. (1996). Inheritance of serum auto-antibody reduced serum IgA and autoimmun disease in a canine breeding colony. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 53, 207-19.
42. DEC, G.W., PALACIOS, I. F., FALLON, J. T., ARETZ, H. T., MILLS, J., LEE, D. C. S. & JOHNSON, R. A. (1985). Active myocarditis in the spectrum of acute dilated cardiomyopathies. New England Journal of Medicine 312, 885-90.
43. DETWEILER, D. K. & PATTERSON, D. F (1965). The prevalence and types of cardiovascular disease in dogs. Annals of New York Academy of Science 127, 481-515.
44. DUJARDIN, K. S., TEI, C., YEO, T. C., HODGE, D. O., ROSSI, A. & SEWARD, J. B. (1998). Prognostic value of a Doppler index combining systolic and diastolic performance in idiopathic-dilated cardiomyopathy. American Journal of Cardiology 82, 1071-6.
45. DUKES MCEWAN, J. (1997). Dilated cardiomyopathy in Newfoundlands (Abstract). The Veterinary Cardiovascular Society meeting, pp.
46. EDWARDS, W. D. (1987). Cardiomyopathies. Human Pathology 18, 625-8.
47. EICHBAUM, F. (1975). Wavy myocardial fibers in spontaneous and experimental adrenergic cardiopathies. Cardiology 60, 358-65.
48. ELIOT, R. S., CLAYTON, F. C., TODD, P. & TODD, G. (1977). Influence of environmental stress on the pathogenesis of sudden cardiac death. Federation proceedings 36, 1719-24.
49. ETTINGER, S., BOLTON, G. & LORD, P. (1970). Idiopathic cardiomyopathy in the dog. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 156, 1225.
50. ETTINGER, S. J., BENITZ, A. M., ERICSSON, G. F., CIFELLI, S., JERNIGAN, A. D., LONGHOFER, S. L., TRIMBOLI, W. & HANSON, P. D. (1998). Effects of enalapril malcate on survival of dogs with naturally occuring acquired heart failure. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 213, 1573-7.
51. EVERETT, R. M., MCGANN, J., WIMBERLY, H. C. & ALTHOFF, J. (1999). Dilated cardiomyopathy of Doberman pinschers: retrospective histomorphologic evaluation of heart from 32 cases. Veterinary Pathology 36, 221-7.
52. FIORETTI, M. & DELLI CARRI, E. (1988). Contribute alla studio delle miocardiopatie primitive del cane: rilevamenti epidemiologici preliminari della cardiomiopatia dilativa. Veterinaria 2, 81-9.
53. Fox, P. (1988). Canine myocardial disease. In: Canine and feline cardiology. Ed Fox, P. Churchill Livingstone, New York. pp. 467-87.
54. Fox, P. (1989). Myocardial diseases. In: Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine: Diseases of the dog and cat, 3 rd ed. Ed Ettinger, S. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. pp 1097-130.
55. FRANCIOSA, J. A, WILEN, M., ZIESCHE, S. & COHN, J. N. (1982). Survival in men with severe chronic left ventricular failure due to either coronary heart disease or idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. American Journal of Cardiology 51, 831-6.
56. FREEMAN, L. M., BROWN, D. J. & RUSH, J. E. (1999). Assessment of degree of oxidative stress and antioxidant concentrations in dogs with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 215, 644-6.
57. FRUSTACI, A. (1989). Right ventricular dysplasia vs idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. European Heart Journal 10, 92-4.
58. FUJIMOTO, S., MIZUNO, R., NAKAGAWA, Y., KIMURA, A., YAMAJI, K., YUTANI, C., DOHI, K. & NAKANO, H. (1999). Ultrasonic tissue characterization in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy: comparison with findings from right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy. International Journal of Cardiac Imaging 15, 391-6.
59. GILBERT, S. J., WOTTON, P. R., TARLTON, J. F., DUANCE, V. C. & BAILEY, A.J. (1997). Increased expression of promatrix metalloproteinase-9 and neutrophil elastase in canine dilated cardiomyopathy. Cardiovascular research 34, 377-83.
60. GOODING, J. P., ROBINSON, W. F., WYBURN, R. S. & CULLEN, L.K. (1982). A cardiomyopathy in the English Cocker Spaniel: a clinico-pathological investigation. Journal of Small Animal Practice 23, 133-49.
61. GOODWIN, J. F. (1970). Congestive and hypertrophic cardiomyopathies. Lancet 731-9.
62. GOODWIN, J. F., GORDON, H., HOLLMAN, A. & BISHOP, M. B. (1961). Clinical aspects of cardiomyopathy. British Medical Journal 69-79.
63. GOODWIN, J. F. & OAKLEY, C. M. (1970). The cardiomyopathies. British Heart Journal 34, 545-52.
64. GROGAN, M., SMITH, H. C., GERSH, B. J. & WOOD, D. (1992). Left ventricular dysfunction due to atrial fibrillation in patients initially believed to have dilated cardiomyopathy. American Journal of Cardiology 69, 1570-3.
65. GRÜNIG, E., TASMAN, J. A., KUCHERER, H., FRANZ, W., KUBLER, W. & KATUS, H. A. (1998). Frequency and phenotypes of familial dilated cardiomyopathy. American Journal of Cardiology 31, 186-94.
66. HARPSTER, N. K. (1983). Boxer cardiomyopathy. In: Current Veterinary Therapy VIII. Ed Kirk, R. W. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia. pp 329-37.
67. HARPSTER, N. K. (1991). Boxer cardiomyopathy. A review of the long-term benefits of anti-arrhythmic therapy. The Veterinary Clinics of North America Small Animal Practice 21, 989-1004.
68. HAZLETT, M. J., MAXIE, M. G., ALLEN, D. G. & WILCOCK, B. P. (1983). A retrospective study of heart disease in Doberman pinscher dogs. Canadian Veterinary Journal 24, 205-10.
69. HEIDENREICH, P. A., LEE, T. T. & MASSIE, B. M. (1997). Effects of beta blockade on mortality in patients with heart failure: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. American Journal of Cardiology 30, 27-34.
70. HEYMES, C., VANDERHEYDEN, M., BRONZWAER, J. G. F., SHAH, A. M. & PAULUS, W.J. (1999). Endomyocardial nitric oxide synthase and left ventricular preload reserve in dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 99, 3009-16.
71. HIGGINS, R. J., KRAKOWKA, S., METZLER, A. E. & KOESTNER, A. (1981). Canine distemper virus-associated cardiac necrosis in the dog. Veterinary Pathology 18, 472-86.
72. HOEY, A., PAGE, A., BROWN, L. & ATWELL, R. B. (1991). Cardiac changes in experimental hyperthyroidism in dogs. Australian Veterinary Journal 68, 352-5.
73. HUANG, F., HE, H. & GICK, G. (1994). Thyroid hormone regulation of Na, K-ATPase alpha 2 gene expression in cardiac myocytes. Cell Molecular Biology Research 40, 41-52.
74. ILGEN, B. E. & CONROY, J. D. (1982). Fatal cardiomyopathy in an adult dog resembling parvovirus-induced myocarditis: a case report. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 18, 613-7.
75. IZUMI, T., HATTORI, A., HIGUMA, N. & TAMURA, K. (1978). Cardiac myofibril disorientation and Z band abnormalities in idiopathic cardiomyopathy. An electron microscope study. Archives of Histology Japan 41, 293-308.
76. JOVANOVIC, S., GRANTHAM, A. J., TARARA, J. E., BURNETT, J. C., JOVANOVIC, A. & TERZIC, A. (1999). Increased number of cardiomyocytes in cross-sections from tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathic hearts. International Journal of Molecular Medicine 3, 153-5.
77. KAJSTURA, J., ZHANG, X., Y., L., SZOKE, E., CHENG, W., OLIVETTI, G., HINTZE; T.H. & ANVERSA, P. (1995). The cellular basis of pacing-induced dilated cardiomyopathy. Myocyte loss and myocyte reactive hypertrophy. Circulation 92, 2306-17.
78. KASPER, E. K., AGEMA, V.R.P., HUTCHINS, G. M., DECKERS, J. V., HARE, J. M. & BAUGMAN, K. L. (1994). The causes of dilated cardiomyopathy: A clinicopathologic review of 673 consecutive patients. Journal of American College of Cardiology 23, 586-90.
79. KEENE, B. W. (1989). Canine cardiomyopathy. In: Current Veterinary Therapy X. Small Animal Practice Ed Kirk, R. W. W. B. Saunders, Philadephia. pp 240-51.
80. KEENE, B. W., KITTLESON, M. D. & RUSH, J. E. (1988). Frequency of myocardial carnitine deficiency associated with spontaneous dilated cardiomyopathy. Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Veterinary Medical Forum pp. 757.
81. KEENE, B. W., KITTLESON, M. D. & RUSH, J. E. (1989). Myocardial carnitine deficiency associated with dilated cardiomyopathy in Doberman pinschers (Abstract). Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 3, 126.
82. KEENE, B. W., PANCIERA, D. L. & REGITZ, V. (1986). Carnitine-linked defects of myocardial metabolism in canine dilated cardiomyopathy. Proceedings of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine pp. 118.
83. KEENE, B. W., PANCIERA, D. P., ATKINS, C. E., REGITZ, V., SCHMIDT, M. J. & SHUG, A. L. (1991). Myocardial L-carnitine deficiency in a family of dogs with dilated cardiomyopathy. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 198, 647-50.
84. KINOSHITA, M., TAKANO, H., TAKENAKA, Y., MORI, H., TAKAICHI, S., NODA, H., TATSUMI, E., YAGURA, A., SEEKII, H. & AKUTSU, T. (1988). Cardiac disuse atrophy during LVAD pumping. American Society of Artificial Internal Organs transactions 34, 208-12.
85. KITTELSON, M. D., KEENE, B., PION, P. D. & LOYER, C. G. (1997). Results of the multicenter spaniel trial (MUST): Taurine- and carnitine-responsive dilated cardiomyopathy in American cocker spaniels with decreased plasma taurine concentration. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 11, 204-11.
86. KLEIN, R., MAISCH, B., KOCHSIEK, K. & BERG, P. A. (1984). Demonstration of organ specific antibodies against heart mitochondria (anti-M7) in sera from patients with some forms of heart diseases. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 58, 283-92.
87. KOCH, J., PEDERSEN, H. D., JENSEN, A. L. & FLAGSTAD, A. (1995). Activation of the renin-angiotensin system in dogs with asymptomatic and symptomatic dilated cardiomyopathy. Research in Veterinary Medicine 59, 172-5.
88. KOHNO, M., MURAKAWA, K., YASUNARI, K., NISHIZAWA, Y., MIRII, H. & TAKCDA, T. (1987). Circulating atrial natriuretic peptides in hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. American Journal of Medicine 83, 648-52.
89. KONO, T., ROSMAN, H., ALAM, M., STEIN, P. & SABBAH, H. N. (1993). Hemodynamic correlates of the third heart sound during the evolution of chronic heart failure. Journal of American College of Cardiology 21, 419-23.
90. LATHAM, R. D., MULROW, J. P., VIRMANI, R., ROBINOWITZ, M. & MOODY, J. M. (1989). Recently diagnosed idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: Incidence of myocarditis and efficacy of prednisone therapy. American Heart Journal 117, 876-82.
91. LEVY, S. A. & DURAY, P. H. (1988). Complete heart block in a dog seropositive for Borrelia burgdorferi. Similarity to human Lyme Carditis. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 2, 138-44.
92. LEWIS, A. B., NEUSTEIN, B., TAKAHASHI, M. & LURIE, P. R. (1985). Findings on endomyocardial biopsy in infants and children with dilated cardiomyopathy. American Journal of Cardiology 55, 143-5.
93. LIMAS, C. J. (1996). Autoimmunity in dilated cardiomypathy and major histocompatibility complex. International Journal of Cardiology 54, 113-6.
94. LIMAS, C. J., GOLDENBERG, I. F. & LIMAS, C. (1989). Autoantibodies against beta-adrenoceptors in human idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation Research 64, 97-103.
95. LIMAS, C. J., GOLDENBERG, I. F. & LIMAS, C. (1995). Soluble interleukin-2 receptor levels in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 91, 631-4.
96. LIMAS, C. J. & LIMAS, C. (1989). HLA antigens in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. British Heart Journal 62, 379-83.
97. LIU, S. K., HSU, F. S. & LEE, R. C. T. (1989). An atlas of cardiovascular pathology. Wonder Enterprise Co., Taiwan, pp. 235.
98. LIU, Z. & GERDES, A. M. (1990). Influence of hypothyroidism and the reversal of hypothyroidism on hemodynamics and cell size in the adult rat heart. Journal of Molecular Cell Cardiology 22, 1339-48.
99. LOMBARD, C. W. (1984). Echocardiographic and clinical signs of dilated cardiomypathy. Journal of Molecular Cell Cardiology 25, 59-70.
100. LOMBARDINI, J. B. (1985). Effects of taurine on calcium ion uptake and protein phosphorylation in rat retinal membrane preparation. Journal of Neurochemistry 45, 268-75.
101. LORD, P. F. (1974). Left ventricular volumes of diseased canine heart: congestive cardiomyopathy and volume overload (patent ductus arteriosus and primary mitral valvular insufficiency. American Journal of Veterinary Research 35, 493.
102. LORD, P. F. (1976). Left ventricular diastolic stiffness in dogs with congestive cardiomyopathy and volume overload. American Journal of Veterinary Research 37, 953-7.
103. LUGINBÜHL, H. & DETWEILER, D. K. (1965). Cardiovascular lesions in dogs. Annals of New York Academy of Science 127, 517-40.
104. LUMSDEN, J. H., O'GRADY, M. R., JONHSTONE, I. B. & HORNE, R. (1993). Prevalence of hypothyroidism and von Willebrands disease in Doberman pinschers and the observered relationship between thyroid, von Willebrand and cardiac status. Abstract of Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 7, 115.
105. MCCARTHY, G. (1984). Idiopathic congestive cardiomyopathy of large breeds of dogs: observations on eleven cases. Irish Veterinary Journal 38, 155-8.
106. MCCARTHY, P. M., NAKATANI, S., VARGO, R., KOTTKEMARCHANT, K., HARASAKI, H., JAMES, K. B., SAVAGE, R. M. & THOMAS, J.D. (1995). Structural and left ventricular histologic changes after implantable LVAD insertion. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 59, 609-13.
107. MCCUTCHEON, L. J., CORY, C. L., NOWACK, L., SHEN, H., MIRSALAMI, M., LAHUCKY, R., KOVAC, L., O'GRADY, M., HORNE, R. & O'BRIEN, P. J. (1992). Respiratory chain defect of myocardial mitochondria in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy of Doberman pinscher dogs. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 70, 1529-33.
108. MCINTOCH BRIGHT, J. & MCENTEE, M. (1995). Isolated right ventricular cardiomyopathy in a dog. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 207, 64-6.
109. MEURS, K. M., MAGNON, A. L., SPIER, A. W., MILLER, M. W., L. B., L. & TOWBIN, J. A. (1999). Evaluation of the cardiac actin gene in Doberman pinschers with dilated cardiomyopathy. Abstract of Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 13, 247.
110. MICHELS, V. V., MOLL, P. P., MILLER, F. A., TAJIK, A. J., CHU, J. S., DRISCOLL, D. J., BURNETT, J. C., RODEHEFFER, R. J., CHESEBRO, J. H. & TAZELAAR, H. D. (1992). The frequency of familial dilated cardiomyopathy in a series of patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. New England Journal of Medicine 9, 77-82.
111. MISSRI, J. (1984). Non-invasive predictors of short and long-term survival in dilated cardiomyopathy. Angiology-Journal of Vascular Diseases 494-9.
112. MOALIC, J. M., BOURGEOIS, F. & MANSIER, P. (1993). Beta 1 adrenergic receptor and G alpha s mRNAin rat heart as a function of mechanical load and thyroxine intoxication. Cardiovascular Research 27, 231-7.
113. MOHAN, P., BRUTSAERT, D. L., PAULUS, W. J. & SYS, S. U. (1996). Myocardial contractile response to nitric oxide and cGMP. Circulation 93, 1223-9.
114. MOISE, N. S., VALENTINE, B. A. & BROWN, C. A. (1991). Duchenne's cardiomyopathy in a canine model: electrocardiographic and echocardiographic studies. Journal of American College of Cardiology 17., 812.
115. MONNET, E., ORTON, C., SALMAN, M. & BOON, J. (1995). Idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy in dogs: Survival and prognostic indicators. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 9, 12-7.
116. MUIR, P., TILZEY, A. J., ENGLISH, T. A. H., NICHOLSON, F., SIGNY, M. & BANATVALA, J. E. (1989). Chronic relapsing pericarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy: serological evidence of persistent enterovirus infection. Lancet 804-6.
117. NAKATANI, S., MCCARTHY, P. M., KOTTKE-MARCHANT, K., HARASAKI, H., JAMES, K. B., SAVAGE, R. M. & THOMAS, J. D. (1996). Left ventricular echocardiographic and histologic changes: Impact of chronic unloading by an implantable ventricular assist device. Journal of American College of Cardiology 27, 894-901.
118. NDUNG'U, J. M., MCEWAN, N. A., JENNINGS, F. W. & MURRAY, M. (1991). Cardiac damage in dogs affected with T brucei; clinical and electrocardiagraphic features. Journal of Small Animal Practice 32, 579-84.
119. NEPOMNIASHCHIKH, L. M., KOLESNIKOVA, L. V. & NEPOMNIASHCHIKH, G. I. (1985). Histologic organization of the myocardium of the rat during hypokinesia. Arkhiv Anatomy Gistology Embriology 88, 57-62.
120. NEUMANN, D. A., BUREK, L., BAUGHMAN, K. L., ROSE, N. R. & HERSKOWITZ, A. (1990). Circulating heart-reactive antibodies in patients with myocarditis or cardiomyopathy. Journal of American College of Cardiology 16, 839-46.
121. O'BRIEN, P. J. (1997). Deficiencies of myocardial troponin-T and creatine kinase MB isoenzyme in dogs with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. American Journal of Veterinary Research 58, 11-6.
122. O'BRIEN, P. J., IANUZZO, C. D., MOE, G. W., STOPPS, T. P. & ARMSTRONG, P. W. (1990). Rapid ventricular pacing of dogs to heart failure: biochemical and physiological studies. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 68, 34-8.
123. O'BRIEN, P. J., O'GRADY, M. R., MCCUTCHEON, L. J., SHEN, H., NOWACK, L., HORNE, R. D., MIRSALIMI, S.M., JULIAN, R. J., GRIMA, E. A., MOE, G. W. & ARMSTRONG, P. W. (1992). Myocardial myoglobin deficiency in various animal models of congestive heart failure. Journal of Molecular Cell Cardiology 24, 721-30.
124. O'BRIEN, P. J., O'GRADY, M. R., LUMSDEN, J. H., HOLMBERG, D. L., SHEN, H., WEILER, J. E., HORN, R., MIRSALIMI, S. M. & JULIAN, R.J. (1993). Clinical profiles of dogs and turkeys with congestive heart failure, either noninduced or induced by rapid ventricular pacing, and turkeys with furazolidone toxicosis. American Journal of Veterinary Research 54, 6068.
125. O'GRADY, M. R. & HOME, R. (1995). Outcome of 103 asymptomatic Doberman pinschers: incidence of dilated cardiomyopathy in a longitudinal study. Proceedings of the 13th American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine Forum, pp. 1014.
126. O'GRADY, M. R. & HORNE, R. (1992). Occult dilated cardiomyopathy: an echocardiographic and electrocardiographic study of 193 asymptomatic Doberman pinschers. Abstract of Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 6, 112.
127. OLSEN, E. G. J. (1972). Pathology of primary cardiomyopathies. Postgraduate Medical Journal 48, 732-7.
128. OLSEN, E. G. J. (1992). The pathogenesis of dilated cardiomyopathy. Postgraduate Medical Journal 68, S7-S10.
129. OLSON, T. M., MICHELS, V. V., THIBODEAU, S. N., TAI, Y. & KEATING, M. T. (1998). Actin mutations in dilated cardiomyopathy, a heretable form of heart failure. Science 280, 750-2.
130. OSLER, W. (1905). The principles and practice of medicine 6th ed. Appelton-Century-Crofts, York. pp. 820.
131. PANCIERA, D. L. (1994). An echocardiographic and electrocardiographic study of cardiovascular function in hypothyroid dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 205, 996-9.
132. PANCIERA, D. L. & MIER, H. C. (1992). Administration of levothyroxine to euthyroid dogs does not affect echocardiographic and electrocardiographic measurements. Research in Veterinary Science 53, 130-2.
133. PANCIERA, D. L. & REFSAL, K. R. (1994). Thyroid function in dogs with spontaneous and induced congestive heart failure. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 58, 157-62.
134. PERRAULT, C. L., SHANNON, R. P., KOMAMURA, K., VATNER, S. F. & MORGAN, J. P. (1992). Abnormalities in intracellular calcium regulation and contractile function in myocardium from dogs with pacing-induced heart failure. Journal of Clinical Investigations 89, 932-8.
135. PION, P. D., KITTLESON, M. D., ROGERS, Q. R. & MORRIS, J. G. (1987). Myocardial failure in cats associated with low plasma taurine: A reversible cardiomyopathy. Science 237, 764-8.
136. REDDY, P. S. (1985). The third heart sound. International Journal of Cardiology 7, 213-21.
137. REGITZ, V., SHUG, A. L. & FLECK, E. (1990). Defective myocardial carnitine metabolism in congestive heart failure secondary to coronary, hypertensive, and valvular heart diseases. American Journal of Cardiology 65, 755-9.
138. Report of a World Health Organization (WHO) Expert committee #697 (1984). Cardiomyopathies. Geneva.
139. Report of the 1995 WHO/ISFC task force (1995). The definition and classification of cardiomyopathies. Circulation 93, 841-2.
140. Report of the WHO/ ISFC task force (1980). The definition and classification of cardiomyopathies. British Heart Journal 44, 672-3.
141. RIHAL, C. S., NISHIMURA, R. A., HATLE, L. K., BAILEY, K.R. & TAJIK, A. J. (1994). Systolic and diastolic dysfunction in patients with clinical diagnosis of dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 90, 2772-9.
142. ROBERTS, W. C., FERRANS, V. J. & BUJA, L. M. (1974). Pathologic aspects of idiopathic cardiomyopathies. Comparative Pathology of the Heart 13, 349-67.
143. ROSSI, M. A. (1992). Chronic hemodynamic unloading regulates the morphologic development of newborn mouse hearts transplanted into the ear of isogenic adult mice. American Journal of Pathology 141, 183-91.
144. SANDERSON, J. E., KOCCH, D., IHA, D. & OJIAMBO, H.P. (1985). Lymphocyte subsets in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. American Journal of Cardiology 55, 755-8.
145. SANDUSKY, G. E., CAPEN, C. C. & KERR, K. M. (1984). Histological and ultrastructural evaluation of cardiac lesions in idiopathic cardiomyopathy in dogs. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine 48, 81-6.
146. SCHATZBERG, S. J., OLBY, N. J., BREEN, M., ANDERSON, L. V. B., LANGFORD, C. F., DICKENS, H. F., WILTON, S. D., ZEISS, C. J., BINNS, M. M., KORNEGAY, J. N., MORRIS, G. E. & SHARP, N. J. H. (1999). Molecular analysis of a spontaneous dystrophin "knockout" dog. Neuromuscular Disorders 9, 289-95.
147. SCHEININ, S., CAPEK, P., RADOVANCEVIC, B., DUNCAN, M., MCALLISTER, H. & FRAZIER, O. (1992). The effect of prolonged left ventricular support on myocardial histopathology in patients with end-stage cardiomyopathy. American Society of Artificial Internal Organs transactions 38, M271-M274.
148. SCHULTHEISS, H. P. & BOLTE, H. D. (1985). Immunological analysis of auto-antibodies against the adenine nucleotide translocator in dilated cardiomyopathy. Journal of Molecular Cell Cardiology 17, 603-17.
149. SCHULZE, K., BECKER, B. F., SCHAUER, R. & SCHULTHEISS, H. P. (1990). Antibodies to ADP-ATP carrier-and autoantigen in myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy-impair cardiac function. Circulation 81, 959-69.
150. SHAHRARA, S., TIDHOLM, A., DRVOTA, V., HÄGGSTRÏM, J. & SYLVÉN, C. (1999). Upregulation of thyroid hormone receptor β1 and β2 messenger RNA in the myocardium of dogs with dilated cardiomyopathy or chronic valvular disease. American Journal of Veterinary Research 60, 848-51.
151. SIMPSON, K. W., BONAGURA, J. D. & EATON, K. A. (1994). Right ventricular cardiomyopathy in a dog. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 8, 306-9.
152. SISSON, D., O'GRADY, M. R. & CALVERT, C. A. (1999). Myocardial diseases of dogs. In: Textbook of canine and feline cardiology: Principles and clinical practice. Ed Fox, P. R., Sisson, D., Moise, N. S. W B. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 582.
153. SISSON, D. D. & THOMAS, W. P. (1995). Myocardial diseases. In: Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 4th ed. Ed Ettinger, S. J. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia. pp. 995-1005.
154. SOLE, M. J. & LIU, P. (1993). Viral myocarditis: A paradigm for understanding the pathogenesis and treatment of dilated cardiomyopathy. Journal of American College of Cardiology 22, 99A-105A.
155. SPINALE, F. G., GRINE, R. C., TEMPEL, G. E. & ZILE, M. R. (1992). Alterations in the myocardial capillary vasculature accompany tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy. Basic research in Cardiology 87, 65-79.
156. STAADEN, R. V. (1981). Cardiomyopathy of English Cocker Spaniels. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 178, 1289-92.
157. STANEK, G., KLEIN, J., BITTNER, R. & GLOGAR, D. (1990). Isolation of Borrelia burgdorferi from myocardium of a patient with longstanding cardiomyopathy. New England Journal of Medicine 322, 249-52.
158. TAYLOR, R. R., COWELL, J. W. & ROSS, J. J. (1969). Influence of the thyroid state on left ventricular tension-velocity relations in the intact, sedated dog. Journal of Clinical Investigations 48, 775-84.
159. TEI, C., LING, L. H., HODGE, D. O., BAILEY, K. R., OH, J. K., RODEHEFFER, R. J., TAJIK, A. J. & SEWARD, J. B. (1995). New index of combined systolic and diastolic myocardial performance: A simple and reproducible measure of cardiac function. A study in normals and dilated cardiomyopathy. Journal of Cardiology 26, 357-66.
160. The Bench (Benazepril in canine heart disease) study group (1999). The effect of benazepril on survival times and clinical signs of dogs with congestive heart failure: Results of a multicenter, prospective, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled long-term clinical trial. Journal of Veterinary Cardiology 1, 7-17.
161. The SOLVD Investigators (1991). Effects of enalapril on survival in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions and congestive heart failure. New England Journal of Medicine 325, 293-302.
162. THIENE, G., NAVA, A. & CORRADO, D. (1988). Right ventricular cardiomyopathy and sudden death in young people. New England Journal of Medicine 318, 129-33.
163. THOMAS, R. E. (1987a). Congestive cardiac failure in young Cocker Spaniels (a form of cardiomyopathy?): details of eight cases. Journal of Small Animal Practice 28, 265-79.
164. THOMAS, W. P. (1987b). Myocardial diseases of the dog. In: Contemporary issues in small animal practice: Cardiology. Ed Bonagura, J. D. Churchill Livingstone, New York. pp. 117-41.
165. TIDHOLM, A., HÄGGSTRÖM, J. & HANSSON, K. (2000a). Effects of naturally occuring symptomatic and asymptomatic dilated cardiomyopathy on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial natriuretic peptide and thyroid hormone concentrations in dogs. American Journal of Veterinary Research In press:
166. TIDHOLM, A. & JÖNSSON, L. (1996). Dilated cardiomyopthy in the New Foundland: A study of 37 cases (1983-1994). Journal of American Animal Hospital Association 32, 465-70.
167. TIDHOLM, A. & JÖNSSON, L. (1997). A retrospective study of canine dilated cardiomyopathy (189 cases). Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 33, 544-50.
168. TIDHOLM, A., SVENSSON, H. & SYLVÉN, C. (1997). Survival and prognostic factors in 189 dogs with dilated cardiomyopathy. Journal of American Animal Hospital Association 33, 364-8.
169. TIDHOLM, A., HÄGGSTRÖM, J. & JÖNSSON, L. (1998). Prevalence of attenuated wavy fibers in the myocardium of dogs with dilated cardiomyopathy. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212, 1732-4.
170. TIDHOLM, A., HÄGGSTRÖM, J. & JÖNSSON, L. (2000b). Detection of attenuated wavy fibers in the myocardium of Newfoundlands without clinical or echocardiographic evidence of heart disease. American Journal of Veterinary Research 61, 238-41.
171. TILLEY, L. P. & LIU, S. K. (1975). Cardiomyopathy in the dog. Recent Advances in Studies on Cardiac Structure and Metabolism 10, 641-53.
172. TOWBIN, J. A. (1993). Molecular genetic aspects of cardiomyopathy. Biochemical Medicine and Metabolic Biology 49, 285-320.
173. TOWBIN, J. A. (1998). The role of cytoskeletal protein s in cardiomyopathies. Current Opinion in Cell Biology 10, 131-9.
174. TOWBIN, J. A., HEJTMANCIK, J. F., BRINK, P., GELB, B., ZHU, X. M., CHAMBERLAIN, J. S., MCCABE, E. R. B. & SWIFT, M. (1993). X-linked cardiomyopathy: Molecular genetic evidence of linkage to the Duchenne muscular dystrophy dilated gene at the Xp21 locus. Circulation 87, 1854-65.
175. UNVERFERTH, D., MAGORIEN, R., MOESCHBERGER, M., BAKER, P., FETTERS, J. & LEIER, C. (1984). Factors influencing the one-year mortality of dilated cardiomyopathy. American Journal of Cardiology 54, 147-52.
176. URIE, P. M. & BILLINGHAM, M. E. (1988). Ultrastructural features of familial cardiomyopathy. American Journal of Cardiology 62, 325-7.
177. VAN FLEET, J. F. & FERRANS, V. J. (1986). Myocardial diseases of animals. American Journal of Pathology 124, 98-178.
178. VAN FLEET, J. F., FERRANS, V. J. & WEIRICH, W. E. (1981). Pathological alterations in congestive cardiomyopathy of dogs. American Journal of Pathology 42, 416-24.
179. VANDEWOUDE, M. F. & BUYSSENS, N. (1992). Effect of aging and malnutrition on rat myocardium. I. The myocyte. Virchows Archives A Pathologic Anatomy and Histopathology 421, 179-88.
180. VOLLMAR, A. (2000). The prevalence of cardiomyopathy in the Irish Wolfhound: A clinical study of 500 dogs. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 36, 125-31.
181. WERNER, G. S., SCHAEFER, C., DIRKS, R., FIGULLA, H. R. & KREUZER, H. (1993). Doppler echocardiographic assessment of left ventricular filling in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy during a one-year follow-up: Relation to the clinical course of disease. American Heart Journal 126, 1408-16.
182. WILSON, J. R., SCHWARTZ, J. S., SUTTON, M. S. J., FERRARO, N., HOROWITZ, L. N., REICHEK, N. & JOSEPHSON, M. E. (1983). Prognosis in severe heart failure: Relation to hemodynamic measurements and ventricular ectopic activity. Journal of American College of Cardiology 2, 403-10.
183. WRIGHT, K. N., MEHDIRAD, A. A., GIACOBBE, P., GRUBB, T. & MAXSON, T. (1999). Radiofrequency catheter ablation of atrioventricular accessory pathways in 3 dogs with subsequent resolution of tachycardiainduced cardiomyopathy. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 13, 361-71.
184. WYNNE, J. & BRAUNWALD, E. (1997). The cardiomyopathies and myocarditides. In: Heart disease: A textbook of cardiovascular medicine 5th ed. Ed Braunwald, E. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia. pp. 1404.
185. ZEVIANI, M., GELLERA, C., ANTOSSI, C., RIMOLDI, M., MORANDI, L., VILLANI, F., TIRANTI, V. & DIDONATO, S. (1991). Maternally inherited myopathy and cardiomyopathy: association with mutation in mitochondrial DNA tRNA. Lancet 338, 143-7.
186. ZUPAN, I., RAKOVEC, P., BUDIHNA, N., BRECELJ, A. & KOZELJ, M. (1996). Tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy in dogs; relation between chronic supraventricular and chronic ventricular tachycardia. International Journal of Cardiology 56, 75-81.