Associations between dietary salt, potassium and blood pressure in South African adults: WHO SAGE Wave 2 Salt & Tobacco

Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases

Volumn 27, Issue 9, 2017, Pages 784-791

  Ware, L J ^a   Charlton, K ^b   Schutte, A E ^a   Cockeran, M ^a   Naidoo, N ^c   Kowal, P ^c,d,e  

^a NORTH WEST UNIVERSITY   (South Africa)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG   (Australia)

^c WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION   (Switzerland)

^d UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE   (Australia)

^e UNIVERSITY OF OREGON   (United States)

Author keywords

Aging; Health policy; Hypertension; Potassium; Public health; Salt; Sodium; South Africa

Indexed keywords

CREATININE; POTASSIUM INTAKE; SODIUM INTAKE;

ADULT; AGE; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ANTHROPOMETRY; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE THERAPY; ARTICLE; BLOOD PRESSURE; COHORT ANALYSIS; CREATININE URINE LEVEL; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ETHNICITY; FEMALE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; METABOLIC PARAMETERS; POTASSIUM INTAKE; POTASSIUM URINE LEVEL; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RURAL AREA; SALT INTAKE; SMOKING; SOCIAL STATUS; SODIUM RESTRICTION; SODIUM TO POTASSIUM RATIO; SODIUM URINE LEVEL; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; URBAN AREA; ADMINISTRATION AND DOSAGE; ADOLESCENT; ADVERSE EFFECTS; AGE DISTRIBUTION; AGED; COMPARATIVE STUDY; DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE; HEALTH STATUS; MIDDLE AGED; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POTASSIUM DEFICIENCY; PREVALENCE; PROTECTION; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; RURAL HEALTH; SODIUM INTAKE; SOUTH AFRICA; STATISTICAL MODEL; URBAN HEALTH; URINE; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE DISTRIBUTION; AGED; BLOOD PRESSURE; DIET, SODIUM-RESTRICTED; FEMALE; HEALTH STATUS; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; LINEAR MODELS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; POTASSIUM DEFICIENCY; POTASSIUM, DIETARY; PREVALENCE; PROTECTIVE FACTORS; RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCES; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR; RURAL HEALTH; SODIUM, DIETARY; SOUTH AFRICA; URBAN HEALTH; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 85027257439     PISSN: 09394753     EISSN: 15903729     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.numecd.2017.06.017     Document Type: Article

References (44)

1. Reducing salt intake in populations: Report of a WHO forum and technical meeting, 5–7, October 2006, World Health Organization, Paris, France. Geneva.
2. Charlton, K., Webster, J., Kowal, P., To legislate or not to legislate? A comparison of the UK and South African approaches to the development and implementation of salt reduction programs. Nutrients 6 (2014), 3672–3695.
3. Government Gazette. Republic of South Africa, Regulations relating to the reduction of sodium in certain foodstuffs and related matters. R214, 20 March 2013 Available from: http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/36274_rg9934_gon214.pdf.
4. Watkins, D.A., Olson, Z.D., Verguet, S., Nugent, R.A., Jamison, D.T., Cardiovascular disease and impoverishment averted due to a salt reduction policy in South Africa: an extended cost-effectiveness analysis. Health Policy Plan 31 (2015), 75–82.
5. Bertram, Y., Steyn, K., Wentze-Viljoen, E., Tollman, S., Hofman, J., Reducing the sodium content of high-salt foods: effect on cardiovascular disease in South Africa. SAMJ South Afr Med J 102 (2012), 743–745.
6. Sever, P., Gordon, D., Peart, W., Beighton, P., Blood-pressure and its correlates in urban and tribal Africa. Lancet 316 (1980), 60–64.
7. Redelinghuys, M., Norton, G.R., Scott, L., Maseko, M.J., Brooksbank, R., Majane, O.H.I., et al. Relationship between urinary salt excretion and pulse pressure and central aortic hemodynamics independent of steady state pressure in the general population. Hypertension 56 (2010), 584–590.
8. Maseko, M.J., Majane, H.O., Milne, J., Norton, G.R., Woodiwiss, A.J., Salt intake in an urban, developing South African community. Cardiovasc J S. Afr official J South Afr Cardiac Soc South Afr Soc Cardiac Pract 17 (2006), 186–191.
9. Charlton, K.E., Steyn, K., Levitt, N.S., Zulu, J.V., Jonathan, D., Veldman, F.J., et al. Diet and blood pressure in South Africa: intake of foods containing sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium in three ethnic groups. Nutrition 21 (2005), 39–50.
10. Kowal, P., Chatterji, S., Naidoo, N., Biritwum, R., Fan, W., Ridaura, R.L., et al. Data resource profile: the World Health Organization Study on global AGEing and adult health (SAGE). Int J Epidemiol 41 (2012), 1639–1649.
11. Charlton, K., Ware, L.J., Menyanu, E., Biritwum, R.B., Naidoo, N., Pieterse, C., et al. Leveraging ongoing research to evaluate the health impacts of South Africa's salt reduction strategy: a prospective nested cohort within the WHO-SAGE multicountry, longitudinal study. BMJ Open, 2016, 6.
12. WHO/PAHO Regional Expert Group for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention through Population-wide Dietary Salt Reduction, Protocol for population level sodium determination in 24-hour urine samples. 2010, World Health Organization, Geneva.
13. O'Brien, E., Pickering, T., Asmar, R., Myers, M., Parati, G., Staessen, J., et al. Working group on blood pressure monitoring of the European society of hypertension international protocol for validation of blood pressure measuring devices in adults. Blood Press Monit 7 (2002), 3–17.
14. Topouchian, J.A., El Assaad, M.A., Orobinskaia, L.V., El Feghali, R.N., Asmar, R.G., Validation of two automatic devices for self-measurement of blood pressure according to the international protocol of the European society of hypertension: the Omron M6 (HEM-7001-E) and the Omron R7 (HEM 637-IT). Blood Press Monit 11 (2006), 165–171.
15. Takahashi, H., Yoshika, M., Yokoi, T., Validation of Omron RS8, RS6, and RS3 home blood pressure monitoring devices, in accordance with the European Society of Hypertension International Protocol revision 2010. Vasc health risk Manag, 9, 2013, 265.
16. World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. JAMA, 2013 Clinical review & Education special communication:E2–E4.
17. World Health Organization Guideline, Potassium intake for adults and children. 2012, World Health Organization, Geneva.
18. Luft, F.C., Aronoff, G.R., Sloan, R.S., Fineberg, N.S., Intra- and interindividual variability in sodium intake in normal subjects and in patients with renal insufficiency. Am J Kidney Dis 7 (1986), 375–380.
19. + balance. Cell Metab 17 (2013), 125–131.
20. Mente, A., O'Donnell, M.J., Yusuf, S., Measuring sodium intake in populations: simple is best?. Am J Hypertens 28 (2015), 1303–1305.
21. Ware, L.J., Swanepoel, B., Schutte, A.E., Urinary sodium-to-potassium ratio: it may be SMART, but is it easy?. Public Health Nutr, 2016, 1–3.
22. Swanepoel, B., Schutte, A.E., Cockeran, M., Steyn, K., Wentzel-Viljoen, E., Sodium and potassium intake in South Africa: an evaluation of 24-hour urine collections in a White, Black and Indian population. J Am Soc Hypertens 10 (2016), 829–837.
23. Oyebode, O., Oti, S., Chen, Y.-F., Lilford, R.J., Salt intakes in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-regression. Popul Health Metrics 14 (2016), 1–14.
24. Maseko, M.J., Majane, H.O., Milne, J., Norton, G.R., Woodiwiss, A.J., Salt intake in an urban, developing South African community. Cardiovasc J S. Afr official J South Afr Cardiac Soc South Afr Soc Cardiac Pract 17 (2005), 186–191.
25. Charlton, K.E., Steyn, K., Levitt, N.S., Zulu, J.V., Jonathan, D., Veldman, F.J., et al. Ethnic differences in intake and excretion of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium in South Africans. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabilitation 12 (2005), 355–362.
26. Barlow, R.J., Connell, M.A., Levendig, B.J., Gear, J.S., Milne, F.J., A comparative study of urinary sodium and potassium excretion in normotensive urban black and white South African males. South Afr Med J 62:25 (1982), 939–941.
27. Hoosen, S., Seedat, Y.K., Bhigjee, A.I., Neerahoo, R.M., A study of urinary sodium and potassium excretion rates among urban and rural zulus and indians. J Hypertens 3 (1985), 351–358.
28. Danaei, G., Finucane, M.M., Lin, J.K., Singh, G.M., Paciorek, C.J., Cowan, M.J., et al. National, regional, and global trends in systolic blood pressure since 1980: systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with 786 country-years and 5·4 million participants. Lancet 377 (2011), 568–577.
29. Mente, A., O'Donnell, M.J., Rangarajan, S., McQueen, M.J., Poirier, P., Wielgosz, A., et al. Association of urinary sodium and potassium excretion with blood pressure. N. Engl J Med 371 (2014), 601–611 (See also online supplementary file): http://www.nejm.org/doi/suppl/10.1056/NEJMoa1311989/suppl_file/nejmoa1311989_appendix.pdf.
30. Lategan, R., Thesis: the association of body weight, 25-hydroxy vitamin D, sodium intake, physical activity levels and genetic factors with the prevalance of hypertension in a low income, black urban community in Mangaung, Free State, South Africa. 2011, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
31. Ji, C., Sykes, L., Paul, C., Dary, O., Legetic, B., Campbell, N.R., et al. Systematic review of studies comparing 24-hour and spot urine collections for estimating population salt intake. Rev Panam Salud Pública 32 (2012), 307–315.
32. Strategies to monitor and evaluate population sodium consumption and sources of sodium in the diet: Report of a joint technical meeting convened by WHO and the Government of Canada, 2010, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
33. Mente, A., O'Donnell, M., Rangarajan, S., Dagenais, G., Lear, S., McQueen, M., et al. Associations of urinary sodium excretion with cardiovascular events in individuals with and without hypertension: a pooled analysis of data from four studies. Lancet 388:10043 (2016 Aug 5), 465–475.
34. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. Intersalt: an international study of electrolyte excretion and blood pressure. Results for 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion. BMJ 297 (1988), 319–328.
35. Waldron, I., Nowotarski, M., Freimer, M., Henry, J.P., Post, N., Witten, C., Cross-cultural variation in blood pressure: a quantitative analysis of the relationships of blood pressure to cultural characteristics, salt consumption and body weight. Soc Sci Med 16 (1982), 419–430.
36. Poulter, N., Khaw, K., Hopwood, B., Mugambi, M., Peart, W., Rose, G., et al. The Kenyan Luo migration study: observations on the initiation of a rise in blood pressure. BMJ 300 (1990), 967–972.
37. Patrick, R., Prior, I., Smith, J., Smith, A., Relationship between blood pressure and modernity among Ponapeans. Int J Epidemiol 12 (1983), 36–44.
38. Cruz-Coke, R., Etcheverry, R., Nagel, R., Influence of migration on blood-pressure of Easter islanders. Lancet 283 (1964), 697–699.
39. Popkin, B.M., Global nutrition dynamics: the world is shifting rapidly toward a diet linked with noncommunicable diseases. Am J Clin Nutr 84 (2006), 289–298.
40. Dolman, R.C., Wentzel-Viljoen, E., Jerling, J.C., Feskens, E.J., Kruger, A., Pieters, M., The use of predefined diet quality scores in the context of CVD risk during urbanization in the South African Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological (PURE) study. Public health Nutr 17 (2014), 1706–1716.
41. Lerchl, K., Rakova, N., Dahlmann, A., Rauh, M., Goller, U., Basner, M., et al. Agreement between 24-hour salt ingestion and sodium excretion in a controlled environment. Hypertension 66 (2015), 850–857.
42. Wielgosz, A., Robinson, C., Mao, Y., Jiang, Y., Campbell, N.R., Muthuri, S., et al. The impact of using different methods to assess completeness of 24-hour urine collection on estimating dietary sodium. The Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 2015.
43. Community Survey, Statistical release P0301. 2016, Statistics South Africa, Pretoria.
44. Markanday, S., Brennan, S.L., Gould, H., Pasco, J.A., Sex-differences in reasons for non-participation at recruitment: geelong osteoporosis study. BMC Res Notes, 6, 2013, 104.