Barriers to the development of forest carbon offsetting: Insights from British Columbia, Canada

Journal of Environmental Management

Volumn 203, Issue , 2017, Pages 208-217

  Peterson St Laurent, Guillaume ^a   Hagerman, Shannon ^a   Hoberg, George ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Barriers; British Columbia; Climate change mitigation; Forest carbon offsets; Forest management; Implementation

Indexed keywords

CARBON;

CARBON EMISSION; CLIMATE CHANGE; ECONOMIC ACTIVITY; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; FOREST MANAGEMENT; GOVERNMENT; PERCEPTION; POLICY IMPLEMENTATION; PRIVATE SECTOR;

ARTICLE; BRITISH COLUMBIA; CARBON FOOTPRINT; CARBON OFFSETTING; CASE STUDY; CLIMATE CHANGE; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; ECONOMIC ASPECT; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; FIRST NATION; FOREST MANAGEMENT; GOVERNMENT; HUMAN; INTERVIEW; ORGANIZATION; PRIVATE SECTOR; PUBLIC OPINION; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FOREST;

BRITISH COLUMBIA; CANADA;

BRITISH COLUMBIA; CARBON; CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES; FORESTS; ORGANIZATIONS;

EID: 85026761801     PISSN: 03014797     EISSN: 10958630     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.07.051     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. REDD+ database, Overview. 2016 Retrieved October 10, 2016, from: http://reddplusdatabase.org/.
2. Anderson, B., Bernauer, T., How much carbon offsetting and where? Implications of efficiency, effectiveness, and ethicality considerations for public opinion formation. Energy Policy 94 (2016), 387–395.
3. Anderson, J.A., Long, A., Luckert, M.K.M., A financial analysis of establishing poplar plantations for carbon offsets using Alberta and British Columbia's afforestation protocols. Can. J. For. Res. 45:2 (2015), 207–216.
4. Ball, D.P., Hoped-for LNG Boom in B.C. A Pipe Dream. 2016, June 12 Vancouver Metro. Retrieved from: http://www.metronews.ca/news/vancouver/2016/07/12/hoped-for-lng-boom-in-bc-a-pipe-dream-economist.html.
5. Bayon, R., Hawn, A., Hamilton, K., Voluntary Carbon Markets: an International Business Guide to what They Are and How They Work. 2009, Earthscan, London, UK.
6. BC MOE, Annual Carbon Offset Portfolios. 2015 Retrieved March 17, 2015, from: http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/climate-change/reports-data/carbon-neutral-action-reports/offsets-portfolios.
7. BC Treaty Commission, Negociation Update. 2016 Retrieved November 11, 2016, from: http://www.bctreaty.net/negotiation-update.
8. Blasch, J., Farsi, M., Retail Demand for Voluntary Carbon Offsets – A Choice Experiment Among Swiss Consumers. 2012, Institute for Environmental Decisions (IED) Working Paper 18.
9. Brown, D., Seymour, F., Peskett, L., Angelsen, A., (eds.) How Do We Achieve REDD Co-benefits and Avoid Doing Harm?, 2008, CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia.
10. Cabello, J., Gilbertson, T., (eds.) No REDD: a Reader, 2010, Carbon Trade Watch, Barcelona, Spain.
11. Cacho, O.J., Lipper, L., Moss, J., Transaction costs of carbon offset projects: a comparative study. Ecol. Econ. 88 (2013), 232–243.
12. Campbell, B.M., Beyond Copenhagen: REDD+, agriculture, adaptation strategies and poverty. Glob. Environ. Change 19:4 (2009), 397–399.
13. Canadian Press, Western Climate Initiative Will See Manitoba. 2015, Jul 12, Quebec Link Up Cap-And-Trade Systems. The Huffingpost, Ontario Retrieved from: http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2015/12/07/manitoba-ontario-quebec-sign-agreement-to-link-cap-and-trade-systems_n_8739564.html.
14. Canaveira, P., Options and Elements for an Accounting Framework for the Land Sector in the Post-2020 Climate Regime., 2013 Terraprima Report to the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment, February 2014.
15. Chilvers, J., Deliberating competence: theoretical and practitioner perspectives on effective participatory appraisal practice. Sci. Technol. Hum. Values 33:2 (2007), 155–185.
16. Ciasullo, R., Simone, C., Conti, M.E., The complex issues of carbon sink: a critical overview. Int. J. Environ. Health 7:2 (2014), 171–195.
17. Creswell, J.W., Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. 2013, SAGE Publications, Los Angeles.
18. Cullenward, D., Wara, M., Carbon markets: effective policy?. Science, 344(6191), 2014 1460–1460.
19. Deal, R.L., Cochran, B., LaRocco, G., Bundling of ecosystem services to increase forestland value and enhance sustainable forest management. For. Policy Econ. 17 (2012), 69–76.
20. Dominy, S.W.J., Gilsenan, R., McKenney, D.W., Allen, D.J., Hatton, T., Koven, A., Cary, J., Yemshanov, D., Sidders, D., A retrospective and lessons learned from Natural Resources Canada's Forest 2020 afforestation initiative. For. Chron. 86:3 (2010), 339–347.
21. Edwards, R., Holland, J., What Is Qualitative Interviewing?. 2013, Bloomsbury Publishing, London.
22. Elo, S., Kyngas, H., The qualitative content analysis process. J. Adv. Nurs. 62:1 (2008), 107–115.
23. Environment and Climate Change Canada, Government of Canada Announces Pan-Canadian Pricing on Carbon Pollution. 2016 [Press release]. Retrieved from: http://news.gc.ca/web/article-en.do?nid=1132149.
24. European Commission, The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). 2015 Retrieved December 3, 2015, from: http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ets/index_en.htm.
25. Fairhead, J., Leach, M., Scoones, I., Green Grabbing: a new appropriation of nature?. J. Peasant Stud. 39:2 (2012), 237–261.
26. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Forestry for a Low-carbon Future: Integrating Forests and Wood Products in Climate Change Strategies. FAO Forestry Paper 117, 2016, FAO, Rome Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5857e.pdf.
27. Fischer, R., Hargita, Y., Günter, S., Insights from the Ground Level?. A content analysis review of multi-national REDD+ studies since 2010, 2016, 1–12.
28. Freedman, B., Stinson, G., Lacoul, P., Carbon credits and the conservation of natural areas. Environ. Rev. 17 (2009), 1–19.
29. Galik, C.S., Mobley, M.L., Richter, D.d., A virtual “field test” of forest management carbon offset protocols: the influence of accounting. Mitig. Adapt. Strategies Glob. Change 14:7 (2009), 677–690.
30. Galik, C.S., Cooley, D.M., Baker, J.S., Analysis of the production and transaction costs of forest carbon offset projects in the USA. J. Environ. Manag. 112 (2012), 128–136.
31. Goldstein, A., Ruef, F., View from the Understory: State of Forest Carbon Finance 2016. 2016, Forest Trends’ Ecosystem Marketplace, Washington, DC Retrieved from: http://www.forest-trends.org/documents/files/doc_5388.pdf.
32. Government of BC, British Columbia's Climate Leadership Plan. 2016, Government of British Columbia, Victoria, BC Retrieved from: http://climate.gov.bc.ca/feature/climate-leadership-plan/.
33. Government of BC, Developing an Offset Project. 2016 Retrieved September 20, 2016, from: http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/climate-change/stakeholder-support/developing-emission-offset-projects/developing-an-offset-project-draft-protocols.
34. Graham, K., REDD+ and Adaptation: Will REDD+ Contribute to Adaptive Capacity at the Local Level?. 2011, REDD-net, London, UK.
35. Graham, V., Laurance, S.G., Grech, A., McGregor, A., Venter, O., A comparative assessment of the financial costs and carbon benefits of REDD+ strategies in Southeast Asia. Environ. Res. Lett., 11(11), 2016 114022–114012.
36. Hamrick, K., Goldstein, A., Raising Ambition: State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2016. 2016, Forest Trends’ Ecosystem Marketplace Retrieved from: http://www.forest-trends.org/documents/files/doc_5242.pdf.
37. Herath, G., Incorporating community objectives in improved wetland management: the use of the analytic hierarchy process. J. Environ. Manag. 70:3 (2004), 263–273.
38. Hoberg, G., Peterson St-Laurent, G., Schittecatte, G., Dymond, C.C., Forest carbon mitigation policy: a policy gap analysis for British Columbia. For. Policy Econ. 69 (2016), 73–82.
39. Hume, M., Contrary to Clark's Belief, Opposition to LNG Project Is about Science. 2016, March 13, The Globe and Mail Retrieved from: http://www.theglobeandmail.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/news/british-columbia/contrary-to-clarks-belief-opposition-to-lng-project-is-about-science/article29204458/.
40. IPCC, Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate change. Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y., Farahani, E., Kadner, S., Seyboth, K., Adler, A., Baum, I., Brunner, S., Eickemeier, P., Kriemann, B., Savolainen, J., Schlomer, S., von Stechow, C., Zwickel, T., Minx, J.C., (eds.) Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA.
41. Karsenty, A., Vogel, A., Castell, F., “Carbon rights”, REDD+ and payments for environmental services. Environ. Sci. Policy 35 (2014), 20–29.
42. Kindermann, G., Obersteiner, M., Sohngen, B., Sathaye, J., Andrasko, K., Rametsteiner, E., Schlamadinger, B., Wunder, S., Beach, R., Global cost estimates of reducing carbon emissions through avoided deforestation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 105:30 (2008), 10302–10307.
43. Kollmuss, A., Lazarus, M., Lee, C., Polycarp, C., LeFranc, M., Handbook of Carbon Offset Programs: Trading Systems, Funds, Protocols and Standards. 2010, Earthscan, Washington, DC.
44. Kossoy, A., Peszko, G., Oppermann, K., Prytz, N., Gilbert, A., Klein, N., Lam, L., Wong, L., Carbon Pricing Watch 2015: an Advance Brief from the State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2015 Report, to Be Released Late 2015., 2015, World Bank Group, Washington, D.C. Retrieved from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/387741468188935412/pdf/96602-REVISED-WP-P153405-PUBLIC-Box393190B.pdf.
45. Lamers, P., Junginger, M., Dymond, C.C., Faaij, A., Damaged forests provide an opportunity to mitigate climate change. GCB Bioenergy 6:1 (2013), 44–60.
46. Larson, A.M., Barry, D., Ram Dahal, G., New rights for forest-based communities? Understanding processes of forest tenure reform. Int. For. Rev. 12:1 (2010), 78–96.
47. Larson, A.M., Brockhaus, M., Sunderlin, W.D., Duchelle, A., Babon, A., Dokken, T., Pham, T.T., Resosudarmo, I.A.P., Selaya, G., Awono, A., Huynh, T.-B., Land tenure and REDD+: the good, the bad and the ugly. Glob. Environ. Change 23:3 (2013), 678–689.
48. Lederer, M., Market making via regulation: the role of the state in carbon markets. Regul. Gov. 6:4 (2012), 524–544.
49. Lee, C.M., Lazarus, M., Smith, G.R., Todd, K., Weitz, M., A ton is not always a ton: a road-test of landfill, manure, and afforestation/reforestation offset protocols in the U.S. carbon market. Environ. Sci. Policy 33 (2013), 53–62.
50. Lemprière, T.C., Kurz, W.A., Hogg, E.H., Schmoll, C., Rampley, G.J., Yemshanov, D., McKenney, D.W., Gilsenan, R., Beatch, A., Blain, D., Bhatti, J.S., Krcmar, E., Canadian boreal forests and climate change mitigation. Environ. Rev. 21:4 (2013), 293–321.
51. Lindenmayer, D.B., Hulvey, K.B., Hobbs, R.J., Colyvan, M., Felton, A., Possingham, H., Steffen, W., Wilson, K., Youngentob, K., Gibbons, P., Avoiding bio-perversity from carbon sequestration solutions. Conserv. Lett. 5:1 (2012), 28–36.
52. Lippke, B., Oneil, E., Harrison, R., Skog, K., Gustavsson, L., Sathre, R., Life cycle impacts of forest management and wood utilization on carbon mitigation: knowns and unknowns. Carbon Manag. 2:3 (2011), 303–333.
53. Luckert, M.K., Haley, D., Hoberg, G., Policies for Sustainably Managing Canada's Forests: Tenure, Stumpage Fees, and Forest Practices. 2011, UBC Press, Vancouver.
54. Mitchell, D., Land administration systems for climate mitigation payments. Paper Presented at the Expert Meeting on Land Tenure Issues for Implementing Climate Change Mitigation Policies in the AFOLU Sectors by the Rural Development Institute, Seattle, WA, USA, 2010.
55. Murray, B.C., Sohngen, B., Ross, M.T., Economic consequences of consideration of permanence, leakage and additionality for soil carbon sequestration projects. Clim. Change 80:1–2 (2006), 127–143.
56. Newell, P., The political economy of carbon markets: the CDM and other stories. Clim. Policy 12:1 (2012), 135–139.
57. Newell, R.G., Pizer, W.A., Raimi, D., Carbon markets 15 years after Kyoto: lessons learned, new challenges. J. Econ. Perspect. 27:1 (2013), 123–146.
58. Noor, K.B.M., Case study: a strategic research methodology. Am. J. Appl. Sci. 5:11 (2008), 1602–1604.
59. Office of the Auditor General of BC, An Audit of Carbon Neutral Government. 2013 Victoria Retrieved from: http://www.bcauditor.com/pubs/2013/report14/audit-carbon-neutral-government.
60. Palmer Fry, B., Community forest monitoring in REDD+: the 'M' in MRV?. Environ. Sci. Policy 14:2 (2011), 181–187.
61. Parker, C., Merger, E., Streck, C., Conway, D., Tennigkeit, T., Wilkes, A., The Land-use Sector within the Post-2020 Climate Regime. 2014, Norden Retrieved from: http://norden.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:711029/FULLTEXT01.pdf.
62. Pasgaard, M., Sun, Z., Müller, D., Mertz, O., Challenges and opportunities for REDD+: a reality check from perspectives of effectiveness, efficiency and equity. Environ. Sci. Policy 63 (2016), 161–169.
63. Pearse, R., Böhm, S., Ten reasons why carbon markets will not bring about radical emissions reduction. Carbon Manag. 5:4 (2015), 325–337.
64. Pembina Institute, Pacific NorthWest LNG highlights missing leadership in B.C. climate plan: carbon pollution from project would torpedo province's 2050 climate target. Retrieved September 10, 2016, from: https://www.pembina.org/media-release/bcclimateplan-pnwlng, 2016.
65. Peskett, L., Benefit Sharing in REDD+: Exploring Implications for Poor and Vulnerable People. 2011, World Bank and REDD-net, Washington, DC, USA.
66. Peskett, L., Schreckenberg, K., Brown, J., Institutional approaches for carbon financing in the forest sector: learning lessons for REDD+ from forest carbon projects in Uganda. Environ. Sci. Policy 14:2 (2011), 216–229.
67. Peterson St-Laurent, G., Haggerman, S., Hoberg, G., Emergence and influence of a new policy regime: the case of forest carbon offsets in British Columbia. Land Use Policy 60 (2017), 169–180.
68. Polonsky, M.J., Garma, R., Grau, S.L., Western consumers' understanding of carbon offsets and its relationship to behavior. Asia Pac. J. Mark. Logist. 23:5 (2013), 583–603.
69. Rakatama, A., Pandit, R., Ma, C., Iftekhar, S., The costs and benefits of REDD+: a review of the literature. For. Policy Econ. 75:C (2017), 103–111.
70. Renn, O., Schweizer, P.-J., New forms of citizen involvement. Gabriel, O.W., Keil, S.I., Kerrouche, E., (eds.) Political Participation in France and Germany, 2012, ECPR Press, Colchester, UK, 273–296.
71. Richards, K., Andersson, K., The leaky sink: persistent obstacles to a forest carbon sequestration program based on individual projects. Clim. Policy 1:1 (2011), 41–54.
72. Richards, K.R., Huebner, G.E., Evaluating protocols and standards for forest carbon-offset programs, Part A: additionality, baselines and permanence. Carbon Manag. 3:4 (2014), 393–410.
73. Richards, K.R., Huebner, G.E., Evaluating protocols and standards for forest carbon-offset programs, Part B: leakage assessment, wood products, validation and verification. Carbon Manag. 3:4 (2014), 411–425.
74. Ristino, L.A., It's not easy being green: reflections on the american carbon offset market. Sustain. Dev. Law Policy, 2008, 34–37.
75. Schenk, A., Hunziker, M., Kienast, F., Factors influencing the acceptance of nature conservation measures—a qualitative study in Switzerland. J. Environ. Manag. 83:1 (2007), 66–79.
76. Simonet, G., Delacote, P., Robert, N., On managing co-benefits in REDD+ projects. Int. J. Agric. Resour. Gov. Ecol., 12(2), 2016, 170.
77. Smith, H., British Columbia and Climate Change: Sustainable Leadership?. 2010, Edmond Montgomery, Toronto, Ontario.
78. Stern, N., Taylor, C., Economics. Climate change: risk, ethics, and the Stern Review. Science 317:5835 (2007), 203–204.
79. Stinson, G., Freedman, B., Potential for carbon sequestration in Canadian forests and agroecosystems. Mitig. Adapt. Strategies Glob. Change 6:1 (2001), 1–23.
80. Tindall, D.B., Trosper, R., Perreault, P., Aboriginal Peoples and Forest Lands in Canada. 2013, UBC Press, Vancouver.
81. Torabi, N., Bekessy, S.A., Bundling and stacking in bio-sequestration schemes: opportunities and risks identified by Australian stakeholders. Ecosyst. Serv. 15 (2015), 84–92.
82. Turnhout, E., Gupta, A., Weatherley-Singh, J., Vijge, M.J., de Koning, J., Visseren-Hamakers, I.J., Herold, M., Lederer, M., Envisioning REDD+ in a post-Paris era: between evolving expectations and current practice. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Clim. Change, 8(1), 2016 e425–413.
83. van der Gaast, W., Sikkema, R., Vohrer, M., The contribution of forest carbon credit projects to addressing the climate change challenge. Clim. Policy, 2016, 1–7.
84. van Kooten, G.C., Bogle, T.N., de Vries, F.P., Forest carbon offsets revisited: shedding light on darkwoods. For. Sci. 61:2 (2015), 370–380.
85. VCS, VM0034-British Columbia Forest Carbon Offset Methodology. 2016 Retrieved November 18, 2016, from: http://database.v-c-s.org/methodologies/british-columbia-forest-carbon-offset-methodology-v10 v1.0.
86. Waage, S., Hamilton, K., Investing in Forest Carbon: Lessons from the First 20 Years: Forest Trends. 2011, The Katoomba Group, Ecosystem Marketplace and Bio-Logical Capital Retrieved from: http://www.forest-trends.org/publication_details.php?publicationID=2677.
87. WCI, Western Climate Initiative. 2013 Retrieved November 11, 2016, from: http://www.westernclimateinitiative.org/.
88. Wieting, J., B.C. Forest Wake-up Call: Heavy Carbon Losses Hit 10 Year Mark. 2015, Sierra Club BC Retrieved from: http://sierraclub.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Forest-Emissions-Detailed-Backgrounder_June22.pdf.
89. Yemshanov, D., McKenney, D.W., Hatton, T., Fox, G., Investment attractiveness of afforestation in Canada inclusive of carbon sequestration benefits. Can. J. Agric. Econ./Revue Can. d'agroeconomie 53:4 (2005), 307–323.
90. Yin, R.K., Case Study Research: Design and Methods. 2003, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
91. Zhu, B., Chevallier, J., Ma, S., Wei, Y., Examining the structural changes of European carbon futures price 2005–2012. Appl. Econ. Lett. 22:5 (2014), 335–342.
92. Zwick, S., BC and the Baseline Brouhaha Part One: Dissecting the Darkwoods Documents. 2013 Retrieved December 16, 2016, from: http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/articles/bc-and-the-baseline-brouhaha-part-one-dissecting-the-darkwoods-documents/.
93. Zwick, S., Canadian Carbon Audit Report Delayed amid Charges of Bias and Overreach., 2013 Retrieved December 15, 2015, from: http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/articles/canadian-carbon-audit-report-delayed-amid-charges-of-bias-and-overreach/.
94. Zwick, S., Documents Back Nature Conservancy over BC Auditor General on Darkwoods. 2013 Retrieved December 16, 2016, from: http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/articles/documents-back-nature-conservancy-br-over-bc-auditor-general-on-darkwoods/.
95. Zwick, S., Facts on Ground Contradict BC Auditor General. 2013 Retrieved December 15, 2016, from: http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/articles/facts-on-ground-br-contradict-bc-auditor-general/.