Prevention and treatment of the post-thrombotic syndrome

Thrombosis Research

Volumn 164, Issue , 2018, Pages 116-124

  Pikovsky, Oleg ^a   Rabinovich, Anat ^a  

^a BEN GURION UNIVERSITY OF THE NEGEV   (Israel)

Author keywords

Anticoagulation; Catheter directed thrombolysis; Compression stocking; Deep vein thrombosis; Defibrotide; Hidrosmin; Post thrombotic syndrome; Rutosides

Indexed keywords

ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTIVITAMIN K; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; PENTOXIFYLLINE;

ANTICOAGULANT THERAPY; BLOOD CLOT; BLOOD CLOT LYSIS; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DRUG EFFICACY; HUMAN; KINESIOTHERAPY; LEG THROMBOSIS; POSTTHROMBOSIS SYNDROME; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVASCULARIZATION; REVIEW; THROMBECTOMY; THROMBOSIS PREVENTION; TREATMENT DURATION; ULCER; ULCER HEALING; PATHOLOGY; VEIN THROMBOSIS;

HUMANS; POSTTHROMBOTIC SYNDROME; VENOUS THROMBOSIS;

EID: 85025449782     PISSN: 00493848     EISSN: 18792472     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.thromres.2017.07.008     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Kahn, S.R., Determinants and time course of the postthrombotic syndrome after acute deep venous thrombosis. Ann. Intern. Med., 149, 2008, 698, 10.7326/0003-4819-149-10-200811180-00004.
2. Prandoni, P., Kahn, S.R., Post-thrombotic syndrome: prevalence, prognostication and need for progress. Br. J. Haematol. 145 (2009), 286–295, 10.1111/j.1365-2141.2009.07601.x.
3. Prandoni, P., Villalta, S., Bagatella, P., Rossi, L., Marchiori, A., Piccioli, A., Bernardi, E., Girolami, B., Simioni, P., Girolami, A., The clinical course of deep-vein thrombosis. Prospective long-term follow-up of 528 symptomatic patients. Haematologica 82 (1997), 423–428.
4. Prandoni, P., The long-term clinical course of acute deep venous thrombosis. Ann. Intern. Med., 125, 1996, 1, 10.7326/0003-4819-125-1-199607010-00001.
5. Kahn, S.R., Ginsberg, J.S., Relationship between deep venous thrombosis and the postthrombotic syndrome. Arch. Intern. Med. 164 (2004), 17–26, 10.1001/archinte.164.1.17.
6. Eklof, B., Perrin, M., Delis, K.T., Rutherford, R.B., Gloviczki, P., Updated terminology of chronic venous disorders: the VEIN-TERM transatlantic interdisciplinary consensus document. J. Vasc. Surg. 49 (2009), 498–501, 10.1016/j.jvs.2008.09.014.
7. Meissner, M.H., Moneta, G., Burnand, K., Gloviczki, P., Lohr, J.M., Lurie, F., Mattos, M.A., McLafferty, R.B., Mozes, G., Rutherford, R.B., Padberg, F., Sumner, D.S., The hemodynamics and diagnosis of venous disease. J. Vasc. Surg. 46 (2007), S4–S24, 10.1016/j.jvs.2007.09.043.
8. Prandoni, P., Frulla, M., Sartor, D., Concolato, A., Girolami, A., Vein abnormalities and the post-thrombotic syndrome. J. Thromb. Haemost. 3 (2005), 401–402, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2004.01106.x.
9. Vedovetto, V., Valle, F.D., Milan, M., Pesavento, R., Prandoni, P., Residual vein thrombosis and trans‑popliteal reflux in patients with and without the post-thrombotic syndrome. Thromb. Haemost. 110 (2013), 854–855, 10.1160/TH13-06-0442.
10. Roumen-Klappe, E.M., den Heijer, M., Janssen, M.C.H., van der Vleuten, C., Thien, T., Wollersheim, H., The post-thrombotic syndrome: incidence and prognostic value of non-invasive venous examinations in a six-year follow-up study. Thromb. Haemost. 94 (2005), 825–830, 10.1160/TH05-03-0146.
11. Enden, T., Kløw, N.-E., Sandvik, L., Slagsvold, C.-E., Ghanima, W., Hafsahl, G., Holme, P.A., Holmen, L.O., Njaastad, A.M., Sandbæk, G., Sandset, P.M., For the Cavent Study Group, Catheter-directed thrombolysis vs. anticoagulant therapy alone in deep vein thrombosis: results of an open randomized, controlled trial reporting on short-term patency. J. Thromb. Haemost. 7 (2009), 1268–1275, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2009.03464.x.
12. Haenen, J.H., Janssen, M.C.H., van Langen, H., van Asten, W.N.J.C., Wollersheim, H., van 't Hof, M.A., Skotnicki, S.H., Thien, T., The postthrombotic syndrome in relation to venous hemodynamics, as measured by means of duplex scanning and strain-gauge plethysmography. J. Vasc. Surg. 29 (1999), 1071–1076, 10.1016/S0741-5214(99)70248-X.
13. Yamaki, T., Nozaki, M., Sakurai, H., Takeuchi, M., Soejima, K., Kono, T., High peak reflux velocity in the proximal deep veins is a strong predictor of advanced post-thrombotic sequelae. J. Thromb. Haemost. 5 (2007), 305–312, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02345.x.
14. Asbeutah, A.M., Riha, A.Z., Cameron, J.D., McGrath, B.P., Five-year outcome study of deep vein thrombosis in the lower limbs. J. Vasc. Surg. 40 (2004), 1184–1189, 10.1016/j.jvs.2004.10.025.
15. Kahn, S.R., Shbaklo, H., Lamping, D.L., Holcroft, C.A., Shrier, I., Miron, M.J., Roussin, A., Desmarais, S., Joyal, F., Kassis, J., Solymoss, S., Desjardins, L., Johri, M., Ginsberg, J.S., Determinants of health-related quality of life during the 2 years following deep vein thrombosis. J. Thromb. Haemost. 6 (2008), 1105–1112, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2008.03002.x.
16. Guanella, R., Ducruet, T., Johri, M., Miron, M.-J., Roussin, A., Desmarais, S., Joyal, F., Kassis, J., Solymoss, S., Ginsberg, J.S., Lamping, D.L., Shrier, I., Kahn, S.R., Economic burden and cost determinants of deep vein thrombosis during 2 years following diagnosis: a prospective evaluation. J. Thromb. Haemost. 9 (2011), 2397–2405, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04516.x.
17. MacDougall, D.A., Feliu, A.L., Boccuzzi, S.J., Lin, J., Economic burden of deep-vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and post-thrombotic syndrome. Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm. 63 (2006), S5–S15, 10.2146/ajhp060388.
18. Ashrani, A.A., Heit, J.A., Incidence and cost burden of post-thrombotic syndrome. J. Thromb. Thrombolysis, 28, 2009, 465, 10.1007/s11239-009-0309-3.
19. Stain, M., Schönauer, V., Minar, E., Bialonczyk, C., Hirschl, M., Weltermann, A., Kyrle, P.A., Eichinger, S., The post-thrombotic syndrome: risk factors and impact on the course of thrombotic disease. J. Thromb. Haemost. 3 (2005), 2671–2676, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2005.01648.x.
20. Kahn, S.R., Lim, W., Dunn, A.S., Cushman, M., Dentali, F., Akl, E.A., Cook, D.J., Balekian, A.A., Klein, R.C., Le, H., Schulman, S., Murad, M.H., Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 141 (2012), e195S–e226S, 10.1378/chest.11-2296.
21. Gould, M.K., Garcia, D.A., Wren, S.M., Karanicolas, P.J., Arcelus, J.I., Heit, J.A., Samama, C.M., Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 141 (2012), e227S–e277S, 10.1378/chest.11-2297.
22. Falck-Ytter, Y., Francis, C.W., Johanson, N.A., Curley, C., Dahl, O.E., Schulman, S., Ortel, T.L., Pauker, S.G., Colwell, C.W. Jr., Prevention of VTE in orthopedic surgery patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 141 (2012), e278S–e325S, 10.1378/chest.11-2404.
23. Kahn, S.R., Comerota, A.J., Cushman, M., Evans, N.S., Ginsberg, J.S., Goldenberg, N.A., Gupta, D.K., Prandoni, P., Vedantham, S., Walsh, M.E., Weitz, J.I., The postthrombotic syndrome: evidence-based prevention, diagnosis, and treatment strategies. Circulation 130 (2014), 1636–1661, 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000130.
24. Dongen, C.J.J., Prandoni, P., Frulla, M., Marchiori, A., Prins, M.H., Hutten, B.A., Relation between quality of anticoagulant treatment and the development of the postthrombotic syndrome. J. Thromb. Haemost. 3 (2005), 939–942, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2005.01333.x.
25. Chitsike, R.S., Rodger, M.A., Kovacs, M.J., Betancourt, M.T., Wells, P.S., Anderson, D.R., Chagnon, I., Le Gal, G., Solymoss, S., Crowther, M.A., Perrier, A., White, R.H., Vickars, L.M., Ramsay, T., Kahn, S.R., Risk of post-thrombotic syndrome after subtherapeutic warfarin anticoagulation for a first unprovoked deep vein thrombosis: results from the REVERSE study. J. Thromb. Haemost. 10 (2012), 2039–2044, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2012.04872.x.
26. Kahn, S.R., Galanaud, J.-P., Vedantham, S., Ginsberg, J.S., Guidance for the prevention and treatment of the post-thrombotic syndrome. J. Thromb. Thrombolysis 41 (2016), 144–153, 10.1007/s11239-015-1312-5.
27. Downing, L.J., Strieter, R.M., Kadell, A.M., Wilke, C.A., Greenfield, L.J., Wakefield, T.W., Low-dose low–molecular-weight heparin is anti-inflammatory during venous thrombosis. J. Vasc. Surg. 28 (1998), 848–854, 10.1016/S0741-5214(98)70060-6.
28. Hull, R.D., Liang, J., Townshend, G., Long-term low-molecular-weight heparin and the post-thrombotic syndrome: a systematic review. Am. J. Med. 124 (2011), 756–765, 10.1016/j.amjmed.2011.02.033.
29. Hull, R.D., Pineo, G.F., Brant, R., Liang, J., Cook, R., Solymoss, S., Poon, M.-C., Raskob, G., Home therapy of venous thrombosis with long-term LMWH versus usual care: patient satisfaction and post-thrombotic syndrome. Am. J. Med., 122, 2009 762–769.e3. (doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2008.12.023.
30. Das, S.K., Cohen, A.T., Edmondson, R.A., Melissari, E., Kakkar, V.V., Low-molecular-weight heparin versus warfarin for prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism: a randomized trial. World J. Surg. 20 (1996), 521–527, 10.1007/s002689900081.
31. Gonzalez-Fajardo, J.A., Arreba, E., Castrodeza, J., Perez, J.L., Fernandez, L., Agundez, I., Mateo, A.M., Carrera, S., Gutiérrez, V., Vaquero, C., Venographic comparison of subcutaneous low–molecular weight heparin with oral anticoagulant therapy in the long-term treatment of deep venous thrombosis. J. Vasc. Surg. 30 (1999), 283–292, 10.1016/S0741-5214(99)70139-4.
32. López-Beret, P., Orgaz, A., Fontcuberta, J., Doblas, M., Martinez, A., Lozano, G., Romero, A., Low molecular weight heparin versus oral anticoagulants in the long-term treatment of deep venous thrombosis. J. Vasc. Surg. 33 (2001), 77–90, 10.1067/mva.2001.109336.
33. Kakkar, V.V., Gebska, M., Kadziola, Z., Saba, N., C., P., behalf of the B. Investigators, Low-molecular-weight heparin in the acute and long-term treatment of deep vein thrombosis. Thromb. Haemost. 89 (2003), 674–680.
34. Kahn, S.R., Partsch, H., Vedantham, S., Prandoni, P., Kearon, C., on behalf of the Subcommittee on Control of Anticoagulation of the Scientific and Standardization Committee of the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis, Definition of post-thrombotic syndrome of the leg for use in clinical investigations: a recommendation for standardization. J. Thromb. Haemost. 7 (2009), 879–883, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2009.03294.x.
35. Daskalopoulos, M.E., Daskalopoulou, S.S., Tzortzis, E., Sfiridis, P., Nikolaou, A., Dimitroulis, D., Kakissis, I., Liapis, C.D., Long-term treatment of deep venous thrombosis with a low molecular weight heparin (tinzaparin): a prospective randomized trial. Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg. 29 (2005), 638–650, 10.1016/j.ejvs.2004.02.029.
36. González-Fajardo, J.A., Martin-Pedrosa, M., Castrodeza, J., Tamames, S., Vaquero-Puerta, C., Effect of the anticoagulant therapy in the incidence of post-thrombotic syndrome and recurrent thromboembolism: comparative study of enoxaparin versus coumarin. J. Vasc. Surg., 48, 2008 953–959.e2. (doi: 10.1016/j.jvs.2008.05.033).
37. Baglin, T., Prevention of post-thrombotic syndrome: a case for new oral anticoagulant drugs or for heparins?. J. Thromb. Haemost. 10 (2012), 1702–1703, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2012.04806.x.
38. Cheung, Y.W., Middeldorp, S., Prins, M.H., Pap, A.F., Lensing, A.W.A., ten Cate-Hoek, A.J., Villalta, S., Milan, M., Beyer-Westendorf, J., Verhamme, P., Bauersachs, R.M., Prandoni, P., on behalf of the E.P.I. Group, Post-thrombotic syndrome in patients treated with rivaroxaban or enoxaparin/vitamin K antagonists for acute deep-vein thrombosis. Thromb. Haemost. 116 (2016), 733–738, 10.1160/TH16-01-0041.
39. San Norberto, E.M., Gastambide, M.V., Taylor, J.H., García-Saiz, I., Vaquero, C., Effects of rosuvastatin as an adjuvant treatment for deep vein thrombosis. Vasa 45 (2016), 133–140, 10.1024/0301-1526/a000507.
40. Prandoni, P., Below-knee elastic compression stockings to prevent the post-thrombotic syndrome: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med., 141, 2004, 249, 10.7326/0003-4819-141-4-200408170-00004.
41. Brandjes, D.P., Büller, H.R., Heijboer, H., Huisman, M.V., de Rijk, M., Jagt, H., ten Cate, J.W., Randomised trial of effect of compression stockings in patients with symptomatic proximal-vein thrombosis. Lancet 349 (1997), 759–762, 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)12215-7.
42. Kahn, S.R., Shapiro, S., Wells, P.S., Rodger, M.A., Kovacs, M.J., Anderson, D.R., Tagalakis, V., Houweling, A.H., Ducruet, T., Holcroft, C., Johri, M., Solymoss, S., Miron, M.-J., Yeo, E., Smith, R., Schulman, S., Kassis, J., Kearon, C., Chagnon, I., Wong, T., Demers, C., Hanmiah, R., Kaatz, S., Selby, R., Rathbun, S., Desmarais, S., Opatrny, L., Ortel, T.L., Ginsberg, J.S., Compression stockings to prevent post-thrombotic syndrome: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 383 (2014), 880–888, 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61902-9.
43. Aschwanden, M., Jeanneret, C., Koller, M.T., Thalhammer, C., Bucher, H.C., Jaeger, K.A., Effect of prolonged treatment with compression stockings to prevent post-thrombotic sequelae: a randomized controlled trial. J. Vasc. Surg. 47 (2008), 1015–1021, 10.1016/j.jvs.2008.01.008.
44. Jayaraj, A., Meissner, M., Impact of graduated compression stockings on the prevention of post-thrombotic syndrome - results of a randomized controlled trial. Phlebology 30 (2015), 541–548, 10.1177/0268355514544781.
45. Ginsberg, J.S., Hirsh, J., Julian, J., LaandeVries, M.V., Magier, D., MacKinnon, B., Gent, M., Prevention and treatment of postphlebitic syndrome: results of a 3-part study. Arch. Intern. Med. 161 (2001), 2105–2109, 10.1001/archinte.161.17.2105.
46. Subbiah, R., Aggarwal, V., Zhao, H., Kolluri, R., Chatterjee, S., Bashir, R., Effect of compression stockings on post thrombotic syndrome in patients with deep vein thrombosis: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Haematol. 3 (2016), e293–e300, 10.1016/S2352-3026(16)30017-5.
47. Couzan, S., Leizorovicz, A., Laporte, S., Mismetti, P., Pouget, J.-F., Chapelle, C., Quéré, I., A randomized double-blind trial of upward progressive versus degressive compressive stockings in patients with moderate to severe chronic venous insufficiency. J. Vasc. Surg., 56, 2012 1344–1350.e1. (doi: 10.1016/j.jvs.2012.02.060).
48. Mosti, G., Partsch, H., High compression pressure over the calf is more effective than graduated compression in enhancing venous pump function. Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg. 44 (2012), 332–336, 10.1016/j.ejvs.2012.06.001.
49. Mol, G.C., van de Ree, M.A., Klok, F.A., Tegelberg, M.J.A.M., Sanders, F.B.M., Koppen, S., de Weerdt, O., Koster, T., Hovens, M.M.C., Kaasjager, H.A.H., Brouwer, R.E., Kragten, E., Schaar, C.G., Spiering, W., Arnold, W.P., Biesma, D.H., Huisman, M.V., et al. BMJ, 353, 2016, 10.1136/bmj.i2691.
50. Kahn, S.R., The post-thrombotic syndrome. ASH Educ. Program Book 2016 (2016), 413–418, 10.1182/asheducation-2016.1.413.
51. Vedantham, S., Valvular dysfunction and venous obstruction in the post-thrombotic syndrome. Thromb. Res. 123:Suppl. 4 (2009), S62–65, 10.1016/S0049-3848(09)70146-X.
52. Comerota, A.J., Grewal, N., Martinez, J.T., Chen, J.T., DiSalle, R., Andrews, L., Sepanski, D., Assi, Z., Postthrombotic morbidity correlates with residual thrombus following catheter-directed thrombolysis for iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis. J. Vasc. Surg. 55 (2012), 768–773, 10.1016/j.jvs.2011.10.032.
53. Vedantham, S., Endovascular procedures in the management of DVT. ASH Educ. Program Book 2011 (2011), 156–161, 10.1182/asheducation-2011.1.156.
54. Comerota, A.J., Thrombolysis for deep venous thrombosis. J. Vasc. Surg. 55 (2012), 607–611, 10.1016/j.jvs.2011.06.005.
55. Watson, L., Broderick, C., Armon, M.P., Thrombolysis for acute deep vein thrombosis. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev, 2016, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002783.
56. Vedantham, S., Kahn, S.R., Goldhaber, S.Z., Comerota, A.J., Parpia, S., Meleth, S., Earp, D., Williams, R., Sista, A.K., Marston, W., Rathbun, S., Magnuson, E.A., Razavi, M.K., Jaff, M.R., Kearon, C., Endovascular therapy for advanced post-thrombotic syndrome: proceedings from a multidisciplinary consensus panel. Vasc. Med. 21 (2016), 400–407, 10.1177/1358863X16650747.
57. Comerota, A.J., Kamath, V., Thrombolysis for iliofemoral deep venous thrombosis. Expert. Rev. Cardiovasc. Ther. 11 (2013), 1631–1638, 10.1586/14779072.2013.852955.
58. Haig, Y., Enden, T., Slagsvold, C.-E., Sandvik, L., Sandset, P.M., Kløw, N.E., Residual rates of reflux and obstruction and their correlation to post-thrombotic syndrome in a randomized study on catheter-directed thrombolysis for deep vein thrombosis. J. Vasc. Surg. Venous Lymphat. Disord. 2 (2014), 123–130, 10.1016/j.jvsv.2013.10.054.
59. Kuo, T.-T., Huang, C.-Y., Hsu, C.-P., Lee, C.-Y., Catheter-directed thrombolysis and pharmacomechanical thrombectomy improve midterm outcome in acute iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis. J. Chin. Med. Assoc. 80 (2017), 72–79, 10.1016/j.jcma.2016.08.012.
60. Patra, S., Srinivas, B., Nagesh, C., Reddy, B., Manjunath, C., Endovascular management of proximal lower limb deep venous thrombosis – a prospective study with six-month follow-up. Phlebology 30 (2015), 441–448, 10.1177/0268355514538423.
61. Xue, G., Huang, X., Ye, M., Liang, W., Zhang, H., Zhang, J., Zhang, B., Catheter-directed thrombolysis and stenting in the treatment of iliac vein compression syndrome with acute Iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis: outcome and follow-up. Ann. Vasc. Surg. 28 (2014), 957–963, 10.1016/j.avsg.2013.11.012.
62. Dumantepe, M., Tarhan, A., Yurdakul, I., Ozler, A., US-accelerated catheter-directed thrombolysis for the treatment of deep venous thrombosis. Diagn. Interv. Radiol., 2012, 10.5152/dir.2012.004.
63. Elsharawy, M., Elzayat, E., Early results of thrombolysis vs anticoagulation in iliofemoral venous thrombosis. A randomised clinical trial. Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg. 24 (2002), 209–214, 10.1053/ejvs.2002.1665.
64. Haig, Y., Enden, T., Grøtta, O., Kløw, N.-E., Slagsvold, C.-E., Ghanima, W., Sandvik, L., Hafsahl, G., Holme, P.A., Holmen, L.O., Njaaastad, A.M., Sandbæk, G., Sandset, P.M., Post-thrombotic syndrome after catheter-directed thrombolysis for deep vein thrombosis (CaVenT): 5-year follow-up results of an open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Haematol. 3 (2016), e64–e71, 10.1016/S2352-3026(15)00248-3.
65. Enden, T., Haig, Y., Kløw, N.-E., Slagsvold, C.-E., Sandvik, L., Ghanima, W., Hafsahl, G., Holme, P.A., Holmen, L.O., Njaastad, A.M., Sandbæk, G., Sandset, P.M., Long-term outcome after additional catheter-directed thrombolysis versus standard treatment for acute iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis (the CaVenT study): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 379 (2012), 31–38, 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61753-4.
66. Morrow, K.L., Kim, A.H., Plato, S.A., Shevitz, A.J., Goldstone, J., Baele, H., Kashyap, V.S., Increased risk of renal dysfunction with percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy compared with catheter-directed thrombolysis. J. Vasc. Surg., 0, 2016, 10.1016/j.jvs.2016.09.047.
67. Gaballah, M., Shi, J., Kukreja, K., Raffini, L., Tarango, C., Keller, M., Krishnamurthy, G., Racadio, J., Patel, M., Cahill, A.M., Endovascular thrombolysis in the management of iliofemoral thrombosis in children: a multi-institutional experience. J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol. 27 (2016), 524–530, 10.1016/j.jvir.2015.12.753.
68. Park, K.-M., Moon, I.S., Kim, J.I., Yun, S., Hong, K.C., Jeon, Y.S., Cho, S.G., Kim, J.Y., Mechanical thrombectomy with trerotola compared with catheter-directed thrombolysis for treatment of acute Iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis. Ann. Vasc. Surg. 28 (2014), 1853–1861, 10.1016/j.avsg.2014.06.056.
69. Shi, H.-J., Huang, Y.-H., Shen, T., Xu, Q., Percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy for acute massive lower extremity deep venous thrombosis. Surg. Laparosc. Endosc. Percutan. Tech. 21 (2011), 50–53, 10.1097/SLE.0b013e31820a4678.
70. Single Session Percutaneous Mechanical Thrombectomy for the Treatment of Ilio-femoral Deep Vein Thrombosis: A Preliminary Evaluation - Full Text View - ClinicalTrials.gov, (n.d.). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02066597 (accessed December 29, 2016).
71. Sharifi, M., Bay, C., Mehdipour, M., Sharifi, J., Thrombus obliteration by rapid percutaneous endovenous intervention in deep venous occlusion (TORPEDO) trial: midterm results. J. Endovasc. Ther. 19 (2012), 273–280, 10.1583/11-3674MR.1.
72. Casey, E.T., Murad, M.H., Zumaeta-Garcia, M., Elamin, M.B., Shi, Q., Erwin, P.J., Montori, V.M., Gloviczki, P., Meissner, M., Treatment of acute iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis. J. Vasc. Surg. 55 (2012), 1463–1473, 10.1016/j.jvs.2011.12.082.
73. Kearon, C., Akl, E.A., Ornelas, J., Blaivas, A., Jimenez, D., Bounameaux, H., Huisman, M., King, C.S., Morris, T.A., Sood, N., Stevens, S.M., Vintch, J.R.E., Wells, P., Woller, S.C., Moores, L., Antithrombotic therapy for VTE disease: CHEST guideline and expert panel report. Chest 149 (2016), 315–352, 10.1016/j.chest.2015.11.026.
74. O., M.J., M., S., K., S.R., J., J.A., K., C., M., B., M., D., Strulovich, C., L., T., R., S., H., J., Ginsberg, J.S., Evaluation of a venous-return assist device to treat severe post-thrombotic syndrome (VENOPTS) - a randomized controlled trial. Thromb. Haemost. 99 (2008), 623–629, 10.1160/TH07-09-0546.
75. Ginsberg, J.S., Magier, D., Mackinnon, B., Gent, M., Hirsh, J., Intermittent compression units for severe post-phlebitic syndrome: a randomized crossover study. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 160 (1999), 1303–1306.
76. Cohen, J.M., Akl, E.A., Kahn, S.R., Pharmacologic and compression therapies for postthrombotic syndrome: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Chest 141 (2012), 308–320, 10.1378/chest.11-1175.
77. Jull, A.B., Arroll, B., Parag, V., Waters, J., Pentoxifylline for treating venous leg ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2012, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001733.pub3/abstract (accessed February 7, 2017).
78. Prevention of Post Thrombotic Syndrome With Pycnogenol® in a Twelve Month Study, ResearchGate. (n.d.). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221717918_Prevention_of_post_thrombotic_syndrome_with_PycnogenolR_in_a_twelve_month_study (accessed March 22, 2017).
79. Ciapponi, A., Laffaire, E., Roqué, M., Calcium dobesilate for chronic venous insufficiency: a systematic review. Angiology 55 (2004), 147–154, 10.1177/000331970405500206.
80. Morling, J.R., Yeoh, S.E., Kolbach, D.N., Rutosides for treatment of post-thrombotic syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2015, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD005625.
81. de Jongste, A.B., Jonker, J.J., Huisman, M.V., ten Cate, J.W., Azar, A.J., A double blind three center clinical trial on the short-term efficacy of 0-(beta-hydroxyethyl)-rutosides in patients with post-thrombotic syndrome. Thromb. Haemost. 62 (1989), 826–829.
82. Ippolito, E., Belcaro, G., Dugall, M., Cesarone, M.R., Feragalli, B., Errichi, B.M., Gizzi, G., Pellegrini, L., Ledda, A., Luzzi, R., Ricci, A., Bavera, P., Hosoi, M., Corsi, M., Errichi, S., Venoruton®: post thrombotic syndrome. Clinical improvement in venous insufficiency (signs and symptoms) with Venoruton®. A five-year, open-registry, efficacy study. Panminerva Med. 53 (2011), 13–19.
83. Pescador, R., Capuzzi, L., Mantovani, M., Fulgenzi, A., Ferrero, M.E., Defibrotide: properties and clinical use of an old/new drug. Vasc. Pharmacol. 59 (2013), 1–10, 10.1016/j.vph.2013.05.001.
84. Palomo, M., Mir, E., Rovira, M., Escolar, G., Carreras, E., Diaz-Ricart, M., What is going on between defibrotide and endothelial cells? Snapshots reveal the hot spots of their romance. Blood 127 (2016), 1719–1727, 10.1182/blood-2015-10-676114.
85. Coutsouvelis, J., Avery, S., Dooley, M., Kirkpatrick, C., Spencer, A., Defibrotide for the management of sinusoidal obstruction syndrome in patients who undergo haemopoietic stem cell transplantation. Cancer Treat. Rev. 50 (2016), 200–204, 10.1016/j.ctrv.2016.09.014.
86. Coccheri, S., Andreozzi, G.M., D'Addato, M., Gensini, G.F., Effects of defibrotide in patients with chronic deep insufficiency: the PROVEDIS study. Int. Angiol. 23 (2004), 100–107 Turin.
87. Pubchem, Hidrosmin | C30H36O16 - PubChem, (n.d.). https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Hidrosmin.
88. Monreal, M., Callejas, J.M., Martorell, A., Lisbona, C., Lerma, R., A prospective study of the long-term efficacy of two different venoactive drugs in patients with post-thrombotic syndrome. Phlebology 9 (1994), 37–40, 10.1177/026835559400900111.
89. Frulla, M., Marchiori, A., Sartor, D., Mosena, L., Tormene, D., Concolato, Alessia, Hartman, L., Prandoni, Paolo, Elastic stockings, hydroxyethylrutosides or both forthe treatmentofpost-thrombotic syndrome. Thromb. Haemost. 93 (2005), 183–185.
90. Kahn, S.R., Shrier, I., Shapiro, S., Houweling, A.H., Hirsch, A.M., Reid, R.D., Kearon, C., Rabhi, K., Rodger, M.A., Kovacs, M.J., Anderson, D.R., Wells, P.S., Six-month exercise training program to treat post-thrombotic syndrome: a randomized controlled two-centre trial. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 183 (2011), 37–44, 10.1503/cmaj.100248.
91. Padberg, F.T. Jr., Johnston, M.V., Sisto, S.A., Structured exercise improves calf muscle pump function in chronic venous insufficiency: a randomized trial. J. Vasc. Surg. 39 (2004), 79–87, 10.1016/j.jvs.2003.09.036.
92. Schulman, S., Lindmarker, P., Holmström, M., Lärfars, G., Carlsson, A., Nicol, P., Svensson, E., Ljungberg, B., Viering, S., Nordlander, S., Leijd, B., Jahed, K., Hjorth, M., Linder, O., Beckman, M., Post-thrombotic syndrome, recurrence, and death 10 years after the first episode of venous thromboembolism treated with warfarin for 6 weeks or 6 months. J. Thromb. Haemost. 4 (2006), 734–742, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2006.01795.x.
93. Phillips, T., Stanton, B., Provan, A., Lew, R., A study of the impact of leg ulcers on quality of life: financial, social, and psychologic implications. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 31 (1994), 49–53.
94. Olin, J.W., Beusterien, K.M., Childs, M.B., Seavey, C., McHugh, L., Griffiths, R.I., Medical costs of treating venous stasis ulcers: evidence from a retrospective cohort study. Vasc. Med. 4 (1999), 1–7 Lond. Engl.
95. O'Meara, S., Cullum, N., Nelson, E.A., Dumville, J.C., Compression for venous leg ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2012, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD000265.
96. Falanga, V., Fujitani, R.M., Diaz, C., Hunter, G., Jorizzo, J., Lawrence, P.F., Lee, B.Y., Menzoian, J.O., Tretbar, L.L., Holloway, G.A., Hoballah, J., Seabrook, G.R., McMillan, D.E., Wolf, W., Systemic treatment of venous leg ulcers with high doses of pentoxifylline: efficacy in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Wound Repair Regen. 7 (1999), 208–213, 10.1046/j.1524-475X.1999.00208.x.
97. Douglas, W., Simpson, N., Guidelines for the management of chronic venous leg ulceration. Report of a multidisciplinary workshop. Br. J. Dermatol. 132 (1995), 446–452, 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1995.tb08681.x.
98. Rippon, M., Davies, P., White, R., Taking the trauma out of wound care: the importance of undisturbed healing. J. Wound Care 21 (2012), 359–368, 10.12968/jowc.2012.21.8.359.
99. Lugli, M., Guerzoni, S., Garofalo, M., Smedile, G., Maleti, O., Neovalve construction in deep venous incompetence. J. Vasc. Surg., 49, 2009 156–162.e2. (doi: 10.1016/j.jvs.2008.07.089).
100. Comerota, A.J., Sandset, P.M., Konstantinides, S., de Graaf, R., Wakefield, T.W., Arnoldussen, C.W.K.P., Lam, Y.L., van Gent, W.B., de Wolf, M.A.F., Catarinella, F.S., Kurstjens, R.L.M., Alshabatat, A., Wittens, C.H.A., Theme 4: invasive management of (recurrent) VTE and PTS. Thromb. Res. 136 (2015), S19–S25, 10.1016/j.thromres.2015.07.037.