Reflections on the Arabian Seas in the Eighteenth Century

Itinerario

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 25-49

  Barendse, R J ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 85018284189     PISSN: 01651153     EISSN: 20412827     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0165115300005556     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. R.J. Barendse, Arabian Seas 1640–1700 (Leiden 1998). Revised version: Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century (Armonk, N.Y. 2001).
2. Holden Furber, John Company at Work (Cambridge, Mass. 1948).
3. Holden Furber, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient, 1600–1800 (Minneapolis, Minn. 1976).
4. As Niels Steensgaard uses the word for example ‘The Indian Ocean Network and the Emerging World-Economy ca. 1500–1700’ in: S. Chandra ed., The Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics (London 1987) 223–235.
5. J. Kieniewicz, ‘Pepper Gardens and Market in Precolonial Malabar’ in: M.N. Pearson, Spices in the Indian Ocean World (Ashgate 1996) 209–244. But note that if accepting Kieniewicz - in my view reliable - figure of 24,000,000 lbs pepper produced by Kerala and Canara around 1760 the total production of pepper had more than doubled compared to the seventeenth century. And this was by and large in response to demand from the Indian internal market and from die Middle East. Proof - if any more was needed - for an overall sharp increase in demand on the subcontinent in the eighteenth century.
6. J. Todd, Travels in Western India (Delhi 1971) 460.
7. D. Ohlson, The Ottoman Siege of Mosul and Ottoman-Persian Relations (Bloomington 1974) 23
8. General State Archive The Hague (ARA), Archief Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC), 1291, ‘Rapport omtrent de ghelegenheyt van 't land Oman in Arabiën’, 1673.
9. G.P. Badger ed., Salih Ibn Raziq, History of the Imams and Seyyids of Oman (London 1871) 56.
10. J. Milburn, Oriental Commerce I-II (London 1813/Delhi 1999) i, 314–327.
11. Note that we know still far too little about West African demand for Indian textiles -and in particular on how it correlated with the indigenous manufacturing there. However, a promising departure to the study of this issue has been made in R. Roberts, ‘West Africa and the Ponducherry Textile Industry’ in: T. Roy ed., Cloth and Commerce in Colonial India (Walnut Creek 1996) 142–176.
12. See e.g. the excerpts from the Dutch shipping-records of Surat in Furber, John Company, 166, which show one single ship importing treasure to the value of 800,000 rupees -nearly half the estimated imports from Persia in the seventeenth century.
13. N.B. Golikova, Astrakhanskoe vostanije 1706 g (Moscow 1973) 168–182.
14. ‘Russko-Iranskie torgovl'ie otnosenija v kontse XVII v. nacale XVIII vv.’ Istoriceskie Zapiski 57 (1956) 232–254.
15. A. Ionissian ed., Armjano-Russkie otnosenija v pervoi tretii XVIII veka (Sbornik, dokumentov) I-II (Erevan 1964) II, 24.
16. N.G. Appolova, Ekonomiceskie i politiceskie svjazi Kazakstana s Rossiei (v XVIII-natsale XIX vv.) (Moscow 1960) 229–233.
17. See J. Steur, Herslel of ondergang: de voorstellen tot redres van de V.O.C 1740–1795 (Utrecht 1984) vi.
18. A. Amir Amin, British Interests in the Persian Gulf (Leiden 1967) 123
19. ARA, HRB 877, ‘Radicale Beschryvinge van Persiën’ by D. van Rheede (1758) and 10.
20. Indeed - the prime case for the seventeenth century crisis in India as I argued in Arabian Seas.
21. See the statisdcal tables of Astrakhan's in- and exports to Persia in the 1770s and 1780s in M.G. Abdulaev, Politeceskic, ekonomiceskie i socialnogo islorija Azerbaidjana v XVIII v. i vsaim otnošenije ego s Rossiejei (Baku 1967).
22. National Archives of India, Foreign Miscellaneous 55, Report Malabar Commission, fo. 229–231.
23. On the cowrie trade see J. Hagendoorn and M.Johnson, The Shell-Money of the Slave-Trade (Cambridge 1986).
24. A.A. de Andrade, Relaçōes de Moçambique settecentista (Lisbon 1955) 220.
25. See my ‘Trade and State in the Arabian Seas: A Survey from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century’, Journal of World History 11 (2) (2000) 221.
26. A. Lougnon, Lïle Bourbon pendant la regence: Desbout le Forger, les débuts du caffee (Paris 1956).
27. R. Matthee, ‘Coffee in Safavid Iran: Commerce and Consumption’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 37 (1994) 1–34.
28. Biblotheca National, Lisbon, Fundo Geral, Códice. 28, fo. 25.
29. For which see A.M. Abu Hakima, History of Eastern Arabia (Beirut 1965).
30. J. Griffiths, Travels in Europe, Asia Minor and Arabia (London 1805) 389
31. J.B. Kelly, Britain and the Persian Gulf 1795–1880 (Oxford 1968) 25.
32. See e.g. G. Knaap's study of Javanese coastal trade (Shallow Waters, Rising Tide: Shipping and Trade in Java around 1775 (Dordrecht 1996)). This could easily be paralleled by a study of the Cochin boomboekjes from the same period, or for the Goa alfandegas for the waters of the central Konkan were absolutely crawling with small crafts.
33. ARA, HRB 877, ‘Radicale Beschryvinge van Persiēn’ by D. van Rheede (1758) and 11.
34. See the lists of in- and exports from Mozambique in the 1780s (sub lecidos da India) in A. Lobato, História do presídio de Lourenço Marques I-II (Lisbon 1960) 328.
35. See E.A. Alpers, ‘Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa’, International Journal of African Historical Studies 9/1 (1976) 368–390 (to be used with care since Alpers confuses Parsis, banias and Christian saraswats).
36. V. Sachdova, Policy and Economics of the Punjab in the Late Eighteenth Century (Delhi 1993) 130–165.
37. T.M. Ricks, ‘Slavery in the Persian Gulf in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century: An Assessment’ in: P. Manning ed., Slave Trades 1500–1800: Globalization of Forced Labour (Ashgate 1996) 283.
38. Todd, Travels in Western India, 450.
39. R. Pankhurst ed., Prutsky's Travels in Ethiopia (London 1991) 61–63.
40. R. Pankurst, An Introduction to the Economic History of Ethiopia (London 1961) 338–356.
41. Milburne, Oriental Commerce I, 89, 326.
42. See the description of the specialist on coastal navigation on the Swahili coast, the late A.H.J. Prins, The Swahili Speaking Peoples of Zanzibar and the East African Coast (London 1961) 65. I have been arguing this contra E.A. Alpers for late seventeenth century Mozambique/Querimba viz. Kilwa.
43. R. Austen, ‘The Nineteenth Century Islamic Slave Trade from East Africa (Swahili and Red Sea Coast): A Tentative Census’ in: W.G. Clarence Smith ed., The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century (London 1989).
44. E.R. Toladano, The Ottoman Slave-Trade and its Suppression: 1840–1890 (Princeton 1989) 142–198.
45. D. Scarr, Slaving and Slavery in the Indian Ocean (London 1998) 20
46. E.A. Alpers, Ivory & Slaves in East Africa (London 1975) 127–135.
47. A. Toussaint, Le mirage des îes: Le négoce français aux Mascareignas au XVIIIème siècle (Aix en Provence 1977).
48. See e.g. H. Deschamps, Les pirates à Madagascar au XVII el XVIIIeme siècle (Paris 1949 and 1959).
49. J.M. Filiot, La traîte des esclaves vers les Mascareignes au XVIIIéme siécle (Tanarive 1971)
50. R. Daccany, L'Île Nossi Bé de Madagascar (Paris 1968).
51. See S. Carlson's study on the trade of the Triest Company in Delagoa Bay, Trade and Dependency: Studies in the Expansion of Europe (Upsalla 1984)
52. A. Smith, ‘Delagoa Bay and the Trade of Southeast Africa’ in: J. Gray and D. Birmingham, Pre-Colonial African Trade Essays on Trade in Central and Eastern Africa before 1900 (London 1970) 267–277.
53. A. Fauvel ed., Unpublished Documents on the History of the Seychelles Islands Anterior to 1809 (London 1906)
54. N. Sainsbury et al. ed., Calendar of State Papers: Colonial Series: America and West-Indies I-XXXXII (London 1860–1969) 1697–1698, 287–289.
55. K. Polanyi, ‘Ports of Trade in Early Civilisation’, Journal of Economic History 23/1 (1963) 30–45.
56. H. Schenk, Views on Alleppey: Socio-Hislorical and Socio-Spatial Perspectives on an Industrial Port-Town in Kerala (South India) (Amsterdam 1986).
57. C. Issawi, The Economic History of Iran (Chicago 1971) 88.
58. Chimnaji and Parasnis, Selections, 160.
59. P. Risso, Oman and Muscat: An Early Modern History (London 1986) 201.
60. L.K. Subramanian, Indigenous Capitalism and Imperial Expansion: Bombay, Sural and the West Coast (Delhi 1996). What seems to have happened was that - very much because of the silting of the Tapi - Surat's long-distance trade shifted to ‘new’ ports in Kathiawar, whereas trade was still financed from Surat.
61. On Kilwa see H.N. Chittick, Kilwa: An Islamic Trading City on the East African Coast I-III (Nairobi 1974).
62. C.S. Nichols, The Swahili Coast: Politics, Diplomacy and Trade on the East African Littoral 1789–1856 (London 1971) 77.
63. Kirthi Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge 1986).
64. Civilization and Capitalism, 15th-18th Century III (Berkeley 1992), The Perspective of the World (London 1985) 30.
65. And the valis of Mocha were often heavily involved in trade themselves, see: Algemeen Rijksarchief in de Provincie Utrecht, Collectie Huydecooper 621, ‘Instructie door den opperkoopman Johan Jozua Kettelaar op zijn vertreck aen deselfs vervanger Daniel Hogendoorn gegeven d.d. 1 Augustus 1709’ (unpaginated).
66. See P. Verin, The History of Civilisation in Northern Madagascar (Rotterdam 1986)
67. compare G. Campbell, The Structure of Trade on Madagascar 1750–1823’, International Journal of African Historical Studies 26/1 (1993) 111–148.
68. See F. Perlin, ‘South Asia and Western Penetration from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century: A Problem of Epistemological Status’, Review 6/2 (1980) 267–306.
69. As in R. Coupland's classic East Africa and its Invaders: From the Earliest Times to the Death of Seyyid Said (Oxford 1956).
70. See J. de Vere Allen, Swahili Origins (London 1993).
71. Essai d'histoire global I-III (Paris 1989–1990).
72. J. Breman, Hel dorp in Azië als koloniale schijngestalte (Amsterdam 1987).
73. R.N. Goodine, ‘Report on the Village Communities of the Deccan’, Selections from the Records of the Bombay Government IV (Bombay 1865).
74. As Thomas Metcalfe actually well recognised, see P. Spear, Twilight of the Mughals (Cambridge 1951) 85.
75. A. Kazanov, Nomads and the Outside World (Cambridge 1979).
76. See J. Gommans, ‘The Silent Frontier of South Asia AD 1100–1800’, Journal ofWorld History 9/1 (1998) 1–23.
77. S.K. Garthwaite, ‘Pastoral Nomadism and Tribal Power’, Iranian Studies 11 (1978) 173–197
78. J. Smith, ‘Turianian Nomadism and Iranian Polities’, Iranian Studies., 57–83.
79. As in L. Beck, The Qashga'i of Iran (Yale 1986) 44–52
80. or in the Qajar genealogy of Hasan e-Fasai's, History of Persia under Qajar Rule [transl. H. Busse] (New York 1972)]
81. I.M. Lapidus, ‘Tribes and State Formation in Islamic History’ in: P.S. Khoury and J. Kostiker eds, Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East (London/New York 1991) 42.
82. On late Safavid administration see R. Mathee, ‘Administrative Stability and Change in Late Seventeenth Century Iran’, International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 26/1 (1994) 77–98
83. and, of course, V.V. Minorsky ed., The tadhikarat al-muluk: A Manual of Safavid Administration (London 1943) for- though in common with Islamic statecraft in general -there was in the Safavid administration a tendency to leave offices empty rather than scrap them, so that much of the central administration described in the Tadhikarat was empty.
84. Forrest, Selections I, 183: ‘the coolies to the northeast of the Myhie are indeed ready to receive anyone who flees to them for protection and they are to be hired in numbers for any purpose’.
85. S. Nag Chowdhury, The Vagrant Peasant: Agrarian Distress and Depression in the Bengal Presidency (Wiesbaden 1982).
86. J.C. Heesterman, ‘The Hindu Frontier’, Itinerario 12/1 (1989) 1–17.
87. ‘Merchant-State Relations in Surat’ in: S.D. Haynes and G. Prakash eds, Contesting Power: Resistance and Everyday Social Relations in South Asia (Delhi 1991).
88. G. Bouchon, ‘Les Musulmans du Kerala a l’époque de la découverte portugaise’, Mare Luso lndicum 2 (1973) 3–59.
89. Bibliotheca National, Lisbon, Fundo Geral, Codice, 580, fo. 28.
90. V.B. Punekar, The Son Kolis of Bombay (Bombay 1959).
91. B. Schrieke, Indonesian Sociological Studies I-1I (The Hague 1955–1957).
92. Whitcombe Clarke, Central Gujarat, 43, passim.
93. And for this reason, despite my admiration for his intentions I am not quite sure whether mid-nineteenth century revenue-material can really be used to reconstruct Indian agrarian history during die last millennium as David Ludden does in his Peasant History in South India (Princeton 1973).
94. T.B. Jervis, Geographical and Statistical Memoir of the Konkan (Calcutta 1840).
95. Most Portuguese agrarian legislation relating to the gavcari-system has been published in: F. Nero Xavier, Bosquejo histórico das communidades das ilhas de Goa, de Bardes e de Salcete I-II (Nova Goa)
96. T.R. Souza, Medieval Goa: A Socio-Economic History (New Delhi 1976).
97. Azad Bilgrami, Khizana i-'amira (Cawnpur 1871) 47
98. quoted in I. Habib, ‘The Eighteenth Century in Indian Economic History’, 225.
99. G.R. Sharma, Saraswata Bhusana (Bombay 1950)
100. F.F. Conlon, A Caste in a Changing World: The Chilrapur Saraswat Brahmins (New Delhi 1977).
101. ‘Littoral et intérieur de l'lnde’ in: H. Wesseling ed., History and Underdevelopment (Leiden 1979) 91.
102. ‘Dyo e melquajaz e suas rendas’ (re-published) in: K.S. Mathews ed., Portuguese and the Sultanate of Gujarat (1500–1573) (Delhi 1986) 152–155.
103. K.C. Birdwood, Report on the Old Records Preserved in the India Office (London 1861) 65.
104. ARA, Collectie Hoppe Koloniaal Archief no. 8448, ‘Consideratieēn van de directeur Jan Schreuder over de vrije vaart en handel’ and 124.
105. Roads Murphy, The Outsiders: The European Experience in India and China (Ann Arbor 1977).
106. Next to the newer work of Subramanyan and Torri a good study of British expansion is still P. Nightingale, Trade and Empire in Western India 1784–1806 (Cambridge 1970).
107. E. Thompson and S.T. Garret, Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India (London 1935).
108. If at the same time - as the evidence seems to suggest - more money was flowing into Western India via the Gulf than was being involved in die drain to Britain, then the drain would have had merely local effects in Bengal and Bihar, rather than on die Indian economy as a whole. As has, for example, been argued by I. Habib, ‘Colonisation of the Indian Economy’, Essays in Indian History (New Delhi 1995) 303.
109. Rajasdian being the exception here: D. Singh, The Stale, Landlords and Peasants: Rajasthan in he Eighteenth Century (New Delhi 1990)
110. S.P. Gupta, The Agrarian System of Eastern Rajasthan c. 1650–1750 (Delhi 1986).
111. C. Markowits, The Global World of Indian Merchants 1750–1947 (Cambridge 2000).
112. J. Goldstone, Revolutions and Rebellions in the Early Modern World (Berkeley 1991) 459.