The silent Frontier of South Asia, C. A.D. 1100-1800

Journal of World History

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 1-22

  Gommans, Jos ^a  

^a LEIDEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FRONTIER REGION; MEDIEVAL; POLITICAL HISTORY; STATE BUILDING;

ASIA, (SOUTH);

EID: 0031845810     PISSN: 10456007     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jwh.2005.0116     Document Type: Review

References (73)

1. See, for example, the illuminating article by E. R. Leach, "The Frontiers of 'Burma'," Comparative Studies of Society and History 3, no. 1 (1960): 49-73. See also, A. T. Embree, "Frontiers into Boundaries: From the Traditional to the Modern State," in Realm and Region in Traditional India, ed. R. G. Fox (Durham, 1977), pp. 255-81.
2. See, for example, the illuminating article by E. R. Leach, "The Frontiers of 'Burma'," Comparative Studies of Society and History 3, no. 1 (1960): 49-73. See also, A. T. Embree, "Frontiers into Boundaries: From the Traditional to the Modern State," in Realm and Region in Traditional India, ed. R. G. Fox (Durham, 1977), pp. 255-81.
3. For a general debate on frontiers, see the articles in the section "Forum: The Formation of Ethnic Identities in Frontier Societies," Journal of World History 4, no. 2 (1993): 267-324.
4. The idea of ecological conditions dividing pastoral nomadism and sedentary agriculture derives from the Chinese experience as analyzed by O. Lattimore. See his Inner Asian Frontiers of China (Oxford, 1988). For Ernest Gellner's thought-provoking Khaldunian views on the historical significance of the frontier in the Middle Eastern context, see his "Tribalism and State Formation in the Middle East," in Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, ed. Ph. S. Khoury and J. Kostiner (London, 1991), pp. 109-127.
5. The idea of ecological conditions dividing pastoral nomadism and sedentary agriculture derives from the Chinese experience as analyzed by O. Lattimore. See his Inner Asian Frontiers of China (Oxford, 1988). For Ernest Gellner's thought-provoking Khaldunian views on the historical significance of the frontier in the Middle Eastern context, see his "Tribalism and State Formation in the Middle East," in Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, ed. Ph. S. Khoury and J. Kostiner (London, 1991), pp. 109-127.
6. See J. C. Heesterman, "Warrior, Peasant and Brahmin," Modern Asian Studies 29, no. 3 (1995): 637-54. Historians of "ancient" South Asia, such as D. D. Kosambi, R. Thapar, H. Kulke, and S. Ratnagar, also stress the significance of the sedentarization process in South Asia. For a brief introduction, see D. D. Kosambi, "Living Prehistory in India," Scientific American 216, no. 2 (1967): 105-114. See also the special issue on pastoralism in South Asia in Studies in History, n.s. 7, no, 1 (1991).
7. See J. C. Heesterman, "Warrior, Peasant and Brahmin," Modern Asian Studies 29, no. 3 (1995): 637-54. Historians of "ancient" South Asia, such as D. D. Kosambi, R. Thapar, H. Kulke, and S. Ratnagar, also stress the significance of the sedentarization process in South Asia. For a brief introduction, see D. D. Kosambi, "Living Prehistory in India," Scientific American 216, no. 2 (1967): 105-114. See also the special issue on pastoralism in South Asia in Studies in History, n.s. 7, no, 1 (1991).
8. See J. C. Heesterman, "Warrior, Peasant and Brahmin," Modern Asian Studies 29, no. 3 (1995): 637-54. Historians of "ancient" South Asia, such as D. D. Kosambi, R. Thapar, H. Kulke, and S. Ratnagar, also stress the significance of the sedentarization process in South Asia. For a brief introduction, see D. D. Kosambi, "Living Prehistory in India," Scientific American 216, no. 2 (1967): 105-114. See also the special issue on pastoralism in South Asia in Studies in History, n.s. 7, no, 1 (1991).
9. Perhaps the two most outstanding works of synthesis on agrarian society in South Asia are still I. Habib, The Agrarian System of Mughal India (London, 1963) for northern India and B. Stein, Peasant State and Society in Medieval South Asia (Oxford, 1980) for southern India. Scholars who have stressed the ongoing importance of mobile groups of pastoralists and warriors include Chetan Singh, A. R. Khan, and D. H. A. Kolff. The potential of "tribal" studies is fully shown in G. Sontheimer, Biroba Mhaskoba und Khandoba. Ursprung, Geschichte und Umwelt von Pastoralen Gottheiten in Maharashtra (Weisbaden, 1976).
10. Perhaps the two most outstanding works of synthesis on agrarian society in South Asia are still I. Habib, The Agrarian System of Mughal India (London, 1963) for northern India and B. Stein, Peasant State and Society in Medieval South Asia (Oxford, 1980) for southern India. Scholars who have stressed the ongoing importance of mobile groups of pastoralists and warriors include Chetan Singh, A. R. Khan, and D. H. A. Kolff. The potential of "tribal" studies is fully shown in G. Sontheimer, Biroba Mhaskoba und Khandoba. Ursprung, Geschichte und Umwelt von Pastoralen Gottheiten in Maharashtra (Weisbaden, 1976).
11. Perhaps the two most outstanding works of synthesis on agrarian society in South Asia are still I. Habib, The Agrarian System of Mughal India (London, 1963) for northern India and B. Stein, Peasant State and Society in Medieval South Asia (Oxford, 1980) for southern India. Scholars who have stressed the ongoing importance of mobile groups of pastoralists and warriors include Chetan Singh, A. R. Khan, and D. H. A. Kolff. The potential of "tribal" studies is fully shown in G. Sontheimer, Biroba Mhaskoba und Khandoba. Ursprung, Geschichte und Umwelt von Pastoralen Gottheiten in Maharashtra (Weisbaden, 1976).
12. For a good typology of pastoral nomads, see A. M. Khazanov's classic Nomads and the Outside World (Cambridge, 1983).
13. Often a distinction is made between arid and semi-arid zones. For the present purpose I have brought them together under the heading Arid Zone since this is the most relevant category in terms of stockbreeding. Obviously, even under the more humid conditions of monsoon Asia, many areas were not cultivated, or were cultivated only temporarily. These lacked, however, the vast mobile resources of the Arid Zone. For the ecological perspective of the Arid Zone, see the various publications of the UNESCO research project on the Arid Zone during the 1950s and 1960s, in serials such as Arid Programme, Arid Research, and Arid Zone.
14. The concept of "Turko-Persia" was introduced in the work Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, ed. R. L. Canfield (Cambridge, 1991). Recently, R. M. Eaton has masterfully analyzed the coinciding frontiers of settled cultivation and Islam in Bengal. As it appears, sedentarization in this humid area was far less hindered by superior military resistance beyond the frontier. See R. M. Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760 (Berkeley, 1993). As such, the Bengal experience more closely resembles sedentarization in Java than in other parts of South Asia. See D. Lombard, Le carrefour Javanais. Essai d'histoire globale, vol. 2: Les réseaux asiatiques (Paris, 1990).
15. The concept of "Turko-Persia" was introduced in the work Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, ed. R. L. Canfield (Cambridge, 1991). Recently, R. M. Eaton has masterfully analyzed the coinciding frontiers of settled cultivation and Islam in Bengal. As it appears, sedentarization in this humid area was far less hindered by superior military resistance beyond the frontier. See R. M. Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760 (Berkeley, 1993). As such, the Bengal experience more closely resembles sedentarization in Java than in other parts of South Asia. See D. Lombard, Le carrefour Javanais. Essai d'histoire globale, vol. 2: Les réseaux asiatiques (Paris, 1990).
16. The concept of "Turko-Persia" was introduced in the work Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, ed. R. L. Canfield (Cambridge, 1991). Recently, R. M. Eaton has masterfully analyzed the coinciding frontiers of settled cultivation and Islam in Bengal. As it appears, sedentarization in this humid area was far less hindered by superior military resistance beyond the frontier. See R. M. Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760 (Berkeley, 1993). As such, the Bengal experience more closely resembles sedentarization in Java than in other parts of South Asia. See D. Lombard, Le carrefour Javanais. Essai d'histoire globale, vol. 2: Les réseaux asiatiques (Paris, 1990).
17. For the geographical data, see O. H. K. Spate and A. T. A. Learmonth, India and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography (London, 1984), and the numerous regional gazetteers covering South Asia. Apart from insights gained through the oral traditions of pastoralists themselves, information on stockbreeding derives mainly from early nineteenth-century travel accounts of animal lovers, such as William Moorcroft and Francis Buchanan, and also the lengthy British accounts concerning the attempts to improve the breed of cattle in South Asia. For this, see the separate sections in the Bengal Military Consultations at the Oriental and India Office Collections (OIOC) in London. The work done by R. O. Whyte, especially Land, Livestock and Human Nutrition (London, 1968), is also helpful.
18. For the geographical data, see O. H. K. Spate and A. T. A. Learmonth, India and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography (London, 1984), and the numerous regional gazetteers covering South Asia. Apart from insights gained through the oral traditions of pastoralists themselves, information on stockbreeding derives mainly from early nineteenth-century travel accounts of animal lovers, such as William Moorcroft and Francis Buchanan, and also the lengthy British accounts concerning the attempts to improve the breed of cattle in South Asia. For this, see the separate sections in the Bengal Military Consultations at the Oriental and India Office Collections (OIOC) in London. The work done by R. O. Whyte, especially Land, Livestock and Human Nutrition (London, 1968), is also helpful.
19. For an account of this process in the Deccan, see Sontheimer, Biroba. For southern India, see the excellent survey of D. Shulman, "Die Dynamik der Sektenbildung im mittelalterlichen Südindien," in Kulturen der Achsenzeit II: Ihre instituationelle und kulturelle Dynamik, Teil.2: Indien, ed. S. N. Eisenstadt (Frankfurt am Main, 1992), pp. 102-29. In general, it appears that from the twelfth century, all over South Asia religious expression becomes more political and aggressive. See the spread of the royal cult of Rama as analyzed by S. Pollock in his "Ramayana and Political Imagination in India, "Journal of Asian Studies 52, no. 2 (1993): 261-97.
20. For an account of this process in the Deccan, see Sontheimer, Biroba. For southern India, see the excellent survey of D. Shulman, "Die Dynamik der Sektenbildung im mittelalterlichen Südindien," in Kulturen der Achsenzeit II: Ihre instituationelle und kulturelle Dynamik, Teil.2: Indien, ed. S. N. Eisenstadt (Frankfurt am Main, 1992), pp. 102-29. In general, it appears that from the twelfth century, all over South Asia religious expression becomes more political and aggressive. See the spread of the royal cult of Rama as analyzed by S. Pollock in his "Ramayana and Political Imagination in India, "Journal of Asian Studies 52, no. 2 (1993): 261-97.
21. For an account of this process in the Deccan, see Sontheimer, Biroba. For southern India, see the excellent survey of D. Shulman, "Die Dynamik der Sektenbildung im mittelalterlichen Südindien," in Kulturen der Achsenzeit II: Ihre instituationelle und kulturelle Dynamik, Teil.2: Indien, ed. S. N. Eisenstadt (Frankfurt am Main, 1992), pp. 102-29. In general, it appears that from the twelfth century, all over South Asia religious expression becomes more political and aggressive. See the spread of the royal cult of Rama as analyzed by S. Pollock in his "Ramayana and Political Imagination in India, "Journal of Asian Studies 52, no. 2 (1993): 261-97.
22. For the increased pace of settlement in southern India, see N. B. Dirks, The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 32-35; and D. Ludden, Peasant History in South India (Delhi, 1989), pp. 42-59. For the impact of sectarian movements in southern India, see A. Appadurai, "Kings, Sects and Temples in South India, 1350-1700 A.D.," Indian Economic and Social History Review 14, no. 1 (1977): 47-73; and Stein, Peasant State, p. 413.
23. For the increased pace of settlement in southern India, see N. B. Dirks, The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 32-35; and D. Ludden, Peasant History in South India (Delhi, 1989), pp. 42-59. For the impact of sectarian movements in southern India, see A. Appadurai, "Kings, Sects and Temples in South India, 1350-1700 A.D.," Indian Economic and Social History Review 14, no. 1 (1977): 47-73; and Stein, Peasant State, p. 413.
24. For the increased pace of settlement in southern India, see N. B. Dirks, The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 32-35; and D. Ludden, Peasant History in South India (Delhi, 1989), pp. 42-59. For the impact of sectarian movements in southern India, see A. Appadurai, "Kings, Sects and Temples in South India, 1350-1700 A.D.," Indian Economic and Social History Review 14, no. 1 (1977): 47-73; and Stein, Peasant State, p. 413.
25. For the increased pace of settlement in southern India, see N. B. Dirks, The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 32-35; and D. Ludden, Peasant History in South India (Delhi, 1989), pp. 42-59. For the impact of sectarian movements in southern India, see A. Appadurai, "Kings, Sects and Temples in South India, 1350-1700 A.D.," Indian Economic and Social History Review 14, no. 1 (1977): 47-73; and Stein, Peasant State, p. 413.
26. It is quite possible that the South Indian polarity between righthand and lefthand castes, most probably stemming from the eleventh century, is partly related to the ascendancy of mobile groups from the Arid Zone.
27. Thanks to the work done by Stein and Wink, there appears to be a growing consensus on the main developments of the period. See Stein, Peasant State; and the two volumes of A. Wink, Al-Hind (Leiden, 1990-97). So far, though, explanations of these developments differ widely. Interesting in this respect is the contribution by D. Ludden, "History outside Civilisation and the Mobility of South Asia," South Asia 17, no. 1 (1994): 1-23.
28. Thanks to the work done by Stein and Wink, there appears to be a growing consensus on the main developments of the period. See Stein, Peasant State; and the two volumes of A. Wink, Al-Hind (Leiden, 1990-97). So far, though, explanations of these developments differ widely. Interesting in this respect is the contribution by D. Ludden, "History outside Civilisation and the Mobility of South Asia," South Asia 17, no. 1 (1994): 1-23.
29. Thanks to the work done by Stein and Wink, there appears to be a growing consensus on the main developments of the period. See Stein, Peasant State; and the two volumes of A. Wink, Al-Hind (Leiden, 1990-97). So far, though, explanations of these developments differ widely. Interesting in this respect is the contribution by D. Ludden, "History outside Civilisation and the Mobility of South Asia," South Asia 17, no. 1 (1994): 1-23.
30. Very helpful as an introduction to the economic role of animals in South Asia is J. Deloche, La circulation en Inde avant la révolution des transports, vol. 1: La voie de terre (Paris, 1980).
31. For the South Asian conditions of horse-breeding, see Jos Gommans, Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire, c. 1710-1780 (Leiden, 1995), pp. 69-79.
32. For an analysis of the horse-warrior revolution in South Asia, see Wink, Al-Hind, vol. 2. For southern India, see J. Deloche, Horse and Riding Equipment in Indian Art (Pondicherry, 1990).
33. For an analysis of the horse-warrior revolution in South Asia, see Wink, Al-Hind, vol. 2. For southern India, see J. Deloche, Horse and Riding Equipment in Indian Art (Pondicherry, 1990).
34. For the reception of Muslim warriors, see S. Bayly, Saints, Goddesses, and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society 1700-1900 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 1-241; C. Talbot, "Inscribing the Other, Inscribing the Self: Hindu-Muslim Identities in Pre-Colonial India," Comparative Studies in Society and History 37 (1995): 692-723; C. Sontheimer, "The Mallari/Khandoba Myth as Reflected in Fok Art and Ritual," Anthropos 79 (1984): 155-70. For Shiva's disguise as a horse dealer, see G. Sontheimer, "Dasara at Devaragudda: Ritual and Play in the Cult of Mailar/Khandoba," in Drama in Contemporary South Asia: Varieties and Settings, ed. L. Lutze (Heidelberg, 1984), p. 27.
35. For the reception of Muslim warriors, see S. Bayly, Saints, Goddesses, and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society 1700-1900 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 1-241; C. Talbot, "Inscribing the Other, Inscribing the Self: Hindu-Muslim Identities in Pre-Colonial India," Comparative Studies in Society and History 37 (1995): 692-723; C. Sontheimer, "The Mallari/Khandoba Myth as Reflected in Fok Art and Ritual," Anthropos 79 (1984): 155-70. For Shiva's disguise as a horse dealer, see G. Sontheimer, "Dasara at Devaragudda: Ritual and Play in the Cult of Mailar/Khandoba," in Drama in Contemporary South Asia: Varieties and Settings, ed. L. Lutze (Heidelberg, 1984), p. 27.
36. For the reception of Muslim warriors, see S. Bayly, Saints, Goddesses, and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society 1700-1900 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 1-241; C. Talbot, "Inscribing the Other, Inscribing the Self: Hindu-Muslim Identities in Pre-Colonial India," Comparative Studies in Society and History 37 (1995): 692-723; C. Sontheimer, "The Mallari/Khandoba Myth as Reflected in Fok Art and Ritual," Anthropos 79 (1984): 155-70. For Shiva's disguise as a horse dealer, see G. Sontheimer, "Dasara at Devaragudda: Ritual and Play in the Cult of Mailar/Khandoba," in Drama in Contemporary South Asia: Varieties and Settings, ed. L. Lutze (Heidelberg, 1984), p. 27.
37. For the reception of Muslim warriors, see S. Bayly, Saints, Goddesses, and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society 1700-1900 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 1-241; C. Talbot, "Inscribing the Other, Inscribing the Self: Hindu-Muslim Identities in Pre-Colonial India," Comparative Studies in Society and History 37 (1995): 692-723; C. Sontheimer, "The Mallari/Khandoba Myth as Reflected in Fok Art and Ritual," Anthropos 79 (1984): 155-70. For Shiva's disguise as a horse dealer, see G. Sontheimer, "Dasara at Devaragudda: Ritual and Play in the Cult of Mailar/Khandoba," in Drama in Contemporary South Asia: Varieties and Settings, ed. L. Lutze (Heidelberg, 1984), p. 27.
38. Early Arabic geographers, such as Yaqut, Ibn Haukal, and Al-Idrisi, refer to an area called Nudiyah in eastern Baluchistan from where pastoralists exported young camels for breeding purposes to Khorasan. See H. G. Raverty, "The Mihran of Sind and Its Tributaries: A Geographical and Historical Study," Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 61 (1892): 216-17, 224, 230.
39. This fits in well with the historical background of the famous epic of Pabuji. Some time during the twelfth or thirteenth century, this Rajput hero is supposed to have introduced "reddish-brown she-camels" to Marwar from Lanka. J. D. Smith, The Epic of Pabuji: A Study, Transcription and Translation (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 324-80. The Sindhi Muslims of Barmer District believe that Pabuji took the camels from a hamlet called Sairo Bagani in the village of Lankaye, 20 km from Umarkot. Vinay Kumar Srivastava, "The Rathore Hero of Rajasthan: Some Reflections on John Smith's The Epic of Pubaji," Modern Asian Studies 28, no. 3 (1994): 610-11.
40. This fits in well with the historical background of the famous epic of Pabuji. Some time during the twelfth or thirteenth century, this Rajput hero is supposed to have introduced "reddish-brown she-camels" to Marwar from Lanka. J. D. Smith, The Epic of Pabuji: A Study, Transcription and Translation (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 324-80. The Sindhi Muslims of Barmer District believe that Pabuji took the camels from a hamlet called Sairo Bagani in the village of Lankaye, 20 km from Umarkot. Vinay Kumar Srivastava, "The Rathore Hero of Rajasthan: Some Reflections on John Smith's The Epic of Pubaji," Modern Asian Studies 28, no. 3 (1994): 610-11.
41. See Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel (New York, 1990).
42. There are numerous, mostly nineteenth-century British regional studies that deal with cattle-breeding in South Asia. R. W. Littlewood, Livestock of Southern India (Madras, 1936), was especially useful.
43. The significance of the Banjaras for the British campaigns in southern India is well known. See R. G. Varady, "North Indian Banjaras: Their Evolution as Transporters," South Asia 2, no. 1 (1979): 1-19. For their crucial role during the Mughal campaigns in the South, see Nawab Samsam-ud-Daula Shah Nawaz Khan and Abdul Hayy, The Maathir-ul-Umara, vol. 1, part 1, trans. H. Beveridge and B. Prashad (Calcutta, 1979), p. 21. See also 1. Habib, "Merchant Communities in Precolonial India," in The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350-1750, ed. J. D. Tracy (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 371-400.
44. The significance of the Banjaras for the British campaigns in southern India is well known. See R. G. Varady, "North Indian Banjaras: Their Evolution as Transporters," South Asia 2, no. 1 (1979): 1-19. For their crucial role during the Mughal campaigns in the South, see Nawab Samsam-ud-Daula Shah Nawaz Khan and Abdul Hayy, The Maathir-ul-Umara, vol. 1, part 1, trans. H. Beveridge and B. Prashad (Calcutta, 1979), p. 21. See also 1. Habib, "Merchant Communities in Precolonial India," in The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350-1750, ed. J. D. Tracy (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 371-400.
45. The significance of the Banjaras for the British campaigns in southern India is well known. See R. G. Varady, "North Indian Banjaras: Their Evolution as Transporters," South Asia 2, no. 1 (1979): 1-19. For their crucial role during the Mughal campaigns in the South, see Nawab Samsam-ud-Daula Shah Nawaz Khan and Abdul Hayy, The Maathir-ul-Umara, vol. 1, part 1, trans. H. Beveridge and B. Prashad (Calcutta, 1979), p. 21. See also I. Habib, "Merchant Communities in Precolonial India," in The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350-1750, ed. J. D. Tracy (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 371-400.
46. On the agrarian conditions of black-cotton soils of South Asia, see Spate and Learmonth, India and Pakistan; and E. Simkins, The Agricultural Geography of the Deccan Plateau (London, 1926).
47. On the agrarian conditions of black-cotton soils of South Asia, see Spate and Learmonth, India and Pakistan; and E. Simkins, The Agricultural Geography of the Deccan Plateau (London, 1926).
48. For the breeding stud in Mysore, see the informative account by Francis Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, 2 vols. (London, 1807); and "Copy Correspondence and Proceedings on Breeding Cattle and Horses in India," OIOC, L/Mil/5/465, app. 3. For horse-breeding in northern India, see Gommans, Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire, pp. 92-96.
49. For the breeding stud in Mysore, see the informative account by Francis Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, 2 vols. (London, 1807); and "Copy Correspondence and Proceedings on Breeding Cattle and Horses in India," OIOC, L/Mil/5/465, app. 3. For horse-breeding in northern India, see Gommans, Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire, pp. 92-96.
50. For the breeding stud in Mysore, see the informative account by Francis Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, 2 vols. (London, 1807); and "Copy Correspondence and Proceedings on Breeding Cattle and Horses in India," OIOC, L/Mil/5/465, app. 3. For horse-breeding in northern India, see Gommans, Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire, pp. 92-96.
51. For a political account of these Afghan nawabs, see Mir Husain Ali Kirmani, "Tazkirat al-bilad wa'l hukkam," OIOC, Add. 10,582, fols. 513-883. For the control of the trade and pilgrimage route to Tirupati, see OIOC, Eur.F.149, "Malet Papers," vol. 5, fol. 398.
52. For a political account of these Afghan nawabs, see Mir Husain Ali Kirmani, "Tazkirat al-bilad wa'l hukkam," OIOC, Add. 10,582, fols. 513-883. For the control of the trade and pilgrimage route to Tirupati, see OIOC, Eur.F.149, "Malet Papers," vol. 5, fol. 398.
53. The vast potential for state formation along the Arid Zone is also suggested by the preponderance of western and north-central states in the geopolitical synopsis presented by J. E. Schwartzberg, although he might have overrated the effective range of the ancient pan-Indian powers. See J. E. Schwartzberg, A Historical Atlas of South Asia (New York, 1992), pp. 254-62.
54. B. Stein, Vijayanagara (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 13-21.
55. See also A. R. Khan's interesting but unpublished presidential address at the Punjab History Conference, Patiala, 1981.
56. The term is derived from E. Gellner, "War and Violence," in Gellner, Anthropology and Politics: Revolutions in the Sacred Grove (Oxford, 1995), p. 164. Interestingly, D. D. Shulman, referring to the Upanisads, uses the same wording in describing the position of the Brahman as being the "womb of kingship." See his King and the Crown in South Indian Myth and Poetry (Princeton, 1985), p. 110. In these terms, it appears that the new political regime closely resembled the Janus-faced position of the Brahman.
57. The term is derived from E. Gellner, "War and Violence," in Gellner, Anthropology and Politics: Revolutions in the Sacred Grove (Oxford, 1995), p. 164. Interestingly, D. D. Shulman, referring to the Upanisads, uses the same wording in describing the position of the Brahman as being the "womb of kingship." See his King and the Crown in South Indian Myth and Poetry (Princeton, 1985), p. 110. In these terms, it appears that the new political regime closely resembled the Janus-faced position of the Brahman.
58. For the present introductory purpose, the geographical data of the area have been mainly gathered from eighteenth- and nineteenth-century sources. Interesting are the reports following the early British attempts to map the area. See the detailed reports by Mughal Beg, OIOC, Eur.F.22; and White, OIOC, F/4/304:6997, "Board's Collections." See also note 37 below. I am greatful to W. R. Pinch for the reference to Mughal Beg.
59. On the shifting of the Punjab rivers, see Raverty, "The Mihran of Sind," pp. 155-508.
60. The meetings of saint and bandit in the wilderness, both escaping the constraints of society, is of course a well-known theme in Indian hagiography. See W. L. Smith, "The Saint and the Bandit," in Studies in South Asian Devotional Literature, ed. A. W. Entwistle and F. Mallison (Paris, 1994), pp. 363-70.
61. See S. Digby, War-Horse and Elephant in the Delhi Sultanate: A Study of Military Supplies (Oxford, 1971), p. 22. Although Digby refers to Punjabi horses, he equates the socalled baladasti horses with horses from Central Asia (pp. 34, 38, 42). I agree with Digby that mulk-i baladast means "the land on the higher side," but this term could equally refer to the elevated plateaus of the Punjab doabs as to Central Asia. See also Ranabir Chakravarti, "Horse Trade and Piracy at Tana (Tana, Mahrashstra, India): Gleanings from Marco Polo," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 34, no. 2 (1991): 172.
62. See S. Digby, War-Horse and Elephant in the Delhi Sultanate: A Study of Military Supplies (Oxford, 1971), p. 22. Although Digby refers to Punjabi horses, he equates the socalled baladasti horses with horses from Central Asia (pp. 34, 38, 42). I agree with Digby that mulk-i baladast means "the land on the higher side," but this term could equally refer to the elevated plateaus of the Punjab doabs as to Central Asia. See also Ranabir Chakravarti, "Horse Trade and Piracy at Tana (Tana, Mahrashstra, India): Gleanings from Marco Polo," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 34, no. 2 (1991): 172.
63. This follows from studying the Bengal Military Consultations for the years 1794-1820. For the discussion at the early stage, see OIOC, P/20/34 (1802), no. 39; for the later considerations, see OIOC, P/29/13 (1820), no. 192.
64. A somewhat similar story might be written about the so-called Mewatis in the arid wastes southwest of Delhi. See the interesting but unpublished paper by Shail Mayaram, "Mughal State Formation: The Mewati Counterperspective," presented at the Third International Seminar on Rajasthan, 14-18 December 1994.
65. For the early Muslim period, see M. Shokoohy and N. H. Shokoohy, Hisar-i Firuza: Sultanate and Early Mughal Architecture in the District of Hisar, India (London, 1988); and the articles "Bhattinda" and "Hissar Firuza" by A. S. Bazmee Ansari and "Hansi" and "Hariyana" by J. Burton-Page in the Encyclopedia of Islam (Leiden, 1986-). The history of the area during Mughal rule derives from the works of Chetan Singh, mainly his Region and Empire: Punjab in the Seventeenth Century (Delhi, 1991), and Irfan Habib, mainly his Agrarian System and An Atlas of the Mughal Empire (Delhi, 1982). Most of the Persian and European material for the area, however, still waits to be fully explored.
66. For the early Muslim period, see M. Shokoohy and N. H. Shokoohy, Hisar-i Firuza: Sultanate and Early Mughal Architecture in the District of Hisar, India (London, 1988); and the articles "Bhattinda" and "Hissar Firuza" by A. S. Bazmee Ansari and "Hansi" and "Hariyana" by J. Burton-Page in the Encyclopedia of Islam (Leiden, 1986-). The history of the area during Mughal rule derives from the works of Chetan Singh, mainly his Region and Empire: Punjab in the Seventeenth Century (Delhi, 1991), and Irfan Habib, mainly his Agrarian System and An Atlas of the Mughal Empire (Delhi, 1982). Most of the Persian and European material for the area, however, still waits to be fully explored.
67. For the early Muslim period, see M. Shokoohy and N. H. Shokoohy, Hisar-i Firuza: Sultanate and Early Mughal Architecture in the District of Hisar, India (London, 1988); and the articles "Bhattinda" and "Hissar Firuza" by A. S. Bazmee Ansari and "Hansi" and "Hariyana" by J. Burton-Page in the Encyclopedia of Islam (Leiden, 1986-). The history of the area during Mughal rule derives from the works of Chetan Singh, mainly his Region and Empire: Punjab in the Seventeenth Century (Delhi, 1991), and Irfan Habib, mainly his Agrarian System and An Atlas of the Mughal Empire (Delhi, 1982). Most of the Persian and European material for the area, however, still waits to be fully explored.
68. For the early Muslim period, see M. Shokoohy and N. H. Shokoohy, Hisar-i Firuza: Sultanate and Early Mughal Architecture in the District of Hisar, India (London, 1988); and the articles "Bhattinda" and "Hissar Firuza" by A. S. Bazmee Ansari and "Hansi" and "Hariyana" by J. Burton-Page in the Encyclopedia of Islam (Leiden, 1986-). The history of the area during Mughal rule derives from the works of Chetan Singh, mainly his Region and Empire: Punjab in the Seventeenth Century (Delhi, 1991), and Irfan Habib, mainly his Agrarian System and An Atlas of the Mughal Empire (Delhi, 1982). Most of the Persian and European material for the area, however, still waits to be fully explored.
69. For the early Muslim period, see M. Shokoohy and N. H. Shokoohy, Hisar-i Firuza: Sultanate and Early Mughal Architecture in the District of Hisar, India (London, 1988); and the articles "Bhattinda" and "Hissar Firuza" by A. S. Bazmee Ansari and "Hansi" and "Hariyana" by J. Burton-Page in the Encyclopedia of Islam (Leiden, 1986-). The history of the area during Mughal rule derives from the works of Chetan Singh, mainly his Region and Empire: Punjab in the Seventeenth Century (Delhi, 1991), and Irfan Habib, mainly his Agrarian System and An Atlas of the Mughal Empire (Delhi, 1982). Most of the Persian and European material for the area, however, still waits to be fully explored.
70. A great deal of information on the Bhattis may be gathered from the accounts of these adventurers. See the Thomas papers of the British Museum, MSS Add.13.579-80, published in W. Francklin's Military Memoirs of Mr. George Thomas (Calcutta, 1803), and his Tracts, Political, Geographical and Commercial (London, 1811). See also James Skinner's manuscripts, OIOC, Add.27.254, "Tazkirat ul-Umara," fol. 267 ff.
71. A great deal of information on the Bhattis may be gathered from the accounts of these adventurers. See the Thomas papers of the British Museum, MSS Add.13.579-80, published in W. Francklin's Military Memoirs of Mr. George Thomas (Calcutta, 1803), and his Tracts, Political, Geographical and Commercial (London, 1811). See also James Skinner's manuscripts, OIOC, Add.27.254, "Tazkirat ul-Umara," fol. 267 ff.
72. A great deal of information on the Bhattis may be gathered from the accounts of these adventurers. See the Thomas papers of the British Museum, MSS Add.13.579-80, published in W. Francklin's Military Memoirs of Mr. George Thomas (Calcutta, 1803), and his Tracts, Political, Geographical and Commercial (London, 1811). See also James Skinner's manuscripts, OIOC, Add.27.254, "Tazkirat ul-Umara," fol. 267 ff.
73. See, for example, OIOC, Eur.D.163, "Bhatti Papers."