A Brief History of the New Constitutionalism, or “How We Changed Everything So That Everything Would Remain the Same”

Israel Law Review

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 250-300

  Mandel, Michael ^a  

^a YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85014134376     PISSN: 00212237     EISSN: 20479336     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0021223700015661     Document Type: Article

References (237)

1. “Se vogliamo che tutto rimanga com'è, bisogna che tutto cambi” Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, II Gattopardo, (Feltrinelli, 1994), 41.
2. Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, trans, by Thomas Nugent (Hafner, 1949), Book XI.6, pp. 152, 153, 159.
3. For two recent examples: when the challenge to the introduction of the “Euro” before the German Constitutional Court failed, the losing law professor claimed that the decision was “highly political and opportunistic” and that “Germany is no longer a law-based state”: International Herald Tribune, April 3,1998:1,12
4. and in a widely reported speech to new judges, the President of the Supreme Court of Israel responded to critics by saying: “Those who argue that we should not hand down rulings on issues with political implications don't understand what a court is”, reiterating his claim in United Mizrahi Bank (infra n. 5, at 162)
5. that though “a constitutional determination has political ramifications … it is not made out of political considerations” but rather considerations that are “legal-constitutional”. Ha'aretz (English edition), June 3, 1998: 3.
6. United Mizrahi Bank Ltd., et al. v. Migdal Cooperative Village, et al., (1995) 49(iv) P.D. 221
7. opinion of the President of the Court, Justice Aharon Barak (in English translation, at 121. All future references to this case cite the English translation).
8. Aristotle, Politico, Book III, Chapter 8
9. in R. McKeon, ed., Introduction to Aristotle (Random House, 1947) 592–593
10. Plato, The Republic, Book VIII, H.D.P. Lee, trans, and ed. (Penguin Books, 1955) 338. A very narrow notion of citizenship allowed Athenian “democracy” to exclude women and slaves, constituting more than two-thirds of the adult population.
11. See “Translator's Introduction” The Republic, Book VIII., at 23.
12. C.B. MacPherson, The Real World of Democracy (Clarendon Press, 1966) 5.
13. The Real World of Democracy, Book III: 7, 592.
14. The Real World of Democracy, at 329, 331, 338.
15. E.g., Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, 1848 (Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1955) 31: “… the first step on the revolution by the working class is to raise the proletariat to the position of ruling class, to establish democracy”.
16. This is not the place to parade the latest statistics on the vertiginous growth in inequality of economic power, which nobody disputes anymore. Here is just one from the United States as reported in the International Herald Tribune of March 2,1998, at p. 3
17. The top 1% of Americans have more wealth than the bottom 90 percent, the report [of the Milton S. Eisenhower Foundation] says, placing the United States first among industrialized nations when it comes to wealth inequality”. For some Canadian figures, see my The Charter of Rights and the Legalization of Politics in Canada (Thompson Educational Publishers, 2d ed., 1994) 337–340.
18. The Charter of Rights and the Legalization of Politics in Canada, at 120.
19. Ronald Dworkin, Freedom's Law. The Moral Reading of the American Constitution (Harvard University Press, 1996) 34.
20. Freedom's Law. The Moral Reading of the American Constitution, at 137
21. quoting New York Trust Co. v. Fisher 256 US 345 (1921), 349.
22. 16 Mauro Cappelletti, “Repudiating Montesquieu? The Expansion and Legitimacy of ‘Constitutional Justice’”, in Paul J. Kollmer and Joanne M. Olson, eds., The Judicial Process in Comparative Perspective (Clarendon Press, 1989) 186–187, emphasis in original.
23. United Mizrahi Bank Ltd., et al. v. Migdal Cooperative Village, et al., The Judicial Process in Comparative Perspective, at 1.
24. The Judicial Process in Comparative Perspective, at 80.
25. The Judicial Process in Comparative Perspective, at 111.
26. Justice Barak cites no historians for his claims in United Mizrahi Bank on the lessons of the Second World War, only the lawyers McWhinney, Cappelletti and Brewer-Carfas, The Judicial Process in Comparative Perspective, at 111.
27. Henry W. Ehrmann, “Judicial Activism in a Divided Society: The Rule of Law in the Weimar Republic”, in John R. Schmidhauser, ed., Comparative Judicial Systems: Changing Frontiers in Conceptual and Empirical Analysis (Butterworth, 1987).
28. Comparative Judicial Systems: Changing Frontiers in Conceptual and Empirical Analysis, at 83–85.
29. Erich Eyck, A History of the Weimar Republic, Harlan P. Hanson and Robert G.L. Waite, trans. (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Vol. I, 1970) 287–288.
30. Quoted in F.F. Blachly and Miriam E. Oatman, “Judicial Review of Legislative Acts in Germany”, (1927), 21 Am. Pol. Science R. 113, at 117.
31. Ingo Müller, Hitler's Justice: The Courts of the Third Reich, trans, by Deborah Lucas Schneider (Harvard University Press, 1991) 15–16.
32. Hitler's Justice: The Courts of the Third Reich, trans, by Deborah Lucas Schneider., at 118.
33. Hitler's Justice: The Courts of the Third Reich, trans, by Deborah Lucas Schneider., at 220.
34. Hitler's Justice: The Courts of the Third Reich, trans, by Deborah Lucas Schneider., at 220–222.
35. Ian Ward, Law, Philosophy & National Socialism (1992).
36. Ian Ward, Law, Philosophy & National Socialism (1992).
37. The same claim is made in H.W. Koch, A Constitutional History of Germany in the 19th and 20th Century, (Longman, 1984), in which one can also find an unusually sympathetic treatment of the German judiciary.
38. Whitney R. Harris, Tyranny on Trial: The Evidence at Nuremberg (1954) 57;
39. Jost Dulffer, Nazi Germany 1933–1945. Faith and Annihilation (Arnold, 1992) 142.
40. “The verdict has been found ‘worthy of Solomon’. Yet such a comparison would have been valid only if the wise monarch had really let the executioner hack the disputed child in hair. Eric Eyck, Faith and Annihilation, Vol. II, at 421.
41. Faith and Annihilation., at 410–425.
42. Of the many accounts of these events besides those already cited, see the discussions in Richard Bessel, Political Violence and the Rise of Nazism: The Storm Troopers in Eastern Germany 1925–1934 (Yale University Press, 1984);
43. Klaus P. Fischer, Nazi Germany: A New History (Constable, 1995);
44. and the classic William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (Pan Books, 1964).
45. Alan Cassels, Fascist Italy (Thomas Y. Crowell, 1968);
46. Dennis Mack Smith, Italy. A Modern History, rev. ed. (University of Michigan Press, 1969).
47. See, in Italian, Guido Neppi Modona, Sciopero, potere politico e magistratura 1870–1922, (Bari, 1969)
48. and “La magistratura e il fascismo”, in AA.W. Fascismo e società italiana (Torino, 1972).
49. Some key decisions of the Cassazione are Lucernare c. Ministero Lavori Pubblici, Giur. it, 1918, I, 654;
50. Curreri c. Abate, Giur. it., 1922, I, 65;
51. Nisco e Banco Di Napoli c. Enrietti, Giur. it., 1922,1, 1
52. 929 and Intaglietta ricorrente, Giur. it., 1924, II, 1, 122.
53. Federal Constitutional Law of the Republic of Austria, 1920, Art. 89.
54. Federal Constitutional Law of the Republic of Austria., Art. 140.
55. Federal Constitutional Law of the Republic of Austria., Art. 147.
56. Hans Kelsen, “The Forces for Reform” Neue Freie Presse, October 6, 1929 (translation).
57. Charles A. Gulick, Austria from Hapsburg to Hitler (University of California Press, 1948).
58. Federal Constitution Law of the Republic of Austria, 1929, Arts. 89.2,140 and 140.1.
59. E.g., Allan R. Brewer-Carías, Judicial Review in Comparative Law (Cambridge University Press, 1989) 195–196.
60. Judicial Review in Comparative Law.
61. In Austria, too, the judicial lenience on right-wing violence played an important part. See Malbone R. Graham, Jr., “The Constitutional Crisis in Austria”, (1930) 24 Am. Pol. Science R. 144.
62. Hans Kelsen, “Judicial Review of Legislation: A Comparative Study of the Austrian and American Constitution”, (1942), 4 Journal of Politics 184, at 188;
63. Federal Constitutional Law of the Republic of Austria, 1929 Art. 147.
64. Gulick, Federal Constitutional Law of the Republic of Austria.
65. “This fact, that judicial review is anathema to the tyrant, is confirmed by developments in many countries in several continents …” Cappelletti, Federal Constitutional Law of the Republic of Austria, at 189.
66. Richard A.H. Robinson, The Origins of Franco's Spain: The Right, the Republic and the Revolution, (David & Charles, 1970) 118.
67. Gabriel Jackson, The Spanish Republic and the Civil War 1931–1939, (Princeton University Press, 1965).
68. David Thomas, Democracy in France Since 1870 (Oxford University Press, 1969).
69. Assemblea Costituente, March 10, 1947, at 324 (my translation).
70. Assemblea Costituente., at 330 (my translation).
71. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
72. Roe v. Wade 410 U.S. 113 (1973).
73. Lochner v. New York 198 U.S. 45 (1905);
74. Hammer v. Dagenhart 247 U.S. 251 (1918);
75. Bailey v. Drexel Furniture 259 U.S. 20 (1922)
76. discussed in Stephen M. Griffin, American Constitutionalism: From Theory to Politics, (Princeton University Press, 1996) 88–90.
77. See also Russell Galloway, Justice For All? Rich and Poor in Supreme Court History 1790–1990 (Carolina Academic Press, 1991).
78. Alec Stone, The Birth of Judicial Politics in France: the Constitutional Council in Comparative Perspective, (Oxford University Press, 1992).
79. W. Simons, “Relation of the German Judiciary to Executive and Legislative Branches of the Government Compared with that of the United States” (1929) 15 A B A Journal 762–67, 779; 54 A B A 226–42.
80. 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
81. 15 S. Ct. L. Ed. 691 (1857).
82. Cappelletti, S. Ct. L. Ed., at 189.
83. Daniel A. Farber and Suzanna Sherry, A History of the American Constitution, (West Publishing Company, 1990) 16–17;
84. Walter B. Mead, The United States Constitution: Personalities, Principles and Issues, (University of South Carolina Press, 1987) 65.
85. Documentary History of the Constitution of the United States of America 1786–1870 (United States of America Department of State, Vol. IV, 1905) 288.
86. Kermit L. Hall, ed., Major Problems in American Constitutional History (Vol. I) 131.
87. Major Problems in American Constitutional History.
88. Hence Madison's formulation of the need for a “defence agst. the inconveniences of democracy consistent with the democratic form of Govt”, Major Problems in American Constitutional History.
89. See also Joyce Appleby, “Capitalism, Liberalism, and the United States Constitution” in A.E. Dick Howard, ed., The United States Constitution: Roots, Rights, and Responsibilities (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992) 61;
90. Thornton Anderson, Creating the Constitution: The Convention of 1787 and the First Congress, (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993) 166ff.
91. Nobody's fault but my own!
92. Donald P. Kommers, “The Federal Constitutional Court in the German Political System”, (1994) 26 Comp. Pol. Studies 470, at 472.
93. Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress, A History of West Germany. Volume I: From Shadow to Substance 1945–1963, (Basil Blackwell, 1989) 221.
94. Müller, From Shadow to Substance 1945–1963, at 224.
95. Stone, From Shadow to Substance 1945–1963, “Constitutional Politics as Oppositional Politics”.
96. Michael Mandel, From Shadow to Substance 1945–1963, chaps. 1 and 2.
97. The Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile, 1980.
98. “Removing the Old Regime's ‘Enclaves’”, Latin American Weekly Report, 11 March 1997, at 129.
99. Herman Schwartz, “The New East European Constitutional Courts”, (1992) 13 Mich. J. Int'l L. 741;
100. Matthias Hartwig, “The Institutionalization of the Rule of Law: The Establishment of Constitutional Courts in the Eastern European Countries”, (1992) 7 Am. U. J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 449;
101. Herbert Hausmaninger, “From the Soviet Committee of Constitutional Supervision to the Russian Constitutional Court”, (1992) 25 Cornell Int'l L.J. 305.
102. Boris Yeltsin, The Struggle for Russia, trans, by Catherine A. Fitzpatrick, (Random House Inc., 1994) 242, 255.
103. The Constitution of the Russian Federation, 1993, Arts. 90 and 107.
104. The Constitution of the Russian Federation., Art. 125.
105. Robert Sharlet, “Russian Constitutional Crisis: Law and Politics Under Yel'tsin”, (1993) 9 Post-Soviet Affairs 314, at 332.
106. Post-Soviet Affairs, Art. 8.
107. The Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile 1980, Art. 19(24).
108. Cass Sunstein, “Constitutionalism, Prosperity, Democracy: Transition in Eastern Europe”, (1991) 2 Constitutional Political Economy 371.
109. Mark Ellis, “Drafting Constitutions: Property Rights in Central and Eastern Europe”, in “Symposium: Constitutionalism in the Post-Cold War Era”, (1994) 19 Yale J. Int'l L. 197–199.
110. Yale J. Int'l L., Arts. 135 and 136.
111. The Toronto Star, May 29, 1994;
112. Daniel Singer, “Yeltsin, the Lame-Duck Czar”, The Nation, May 2,1994, at 588;
113. Robert Sharlet, “Transitional Constitutionalism: Politics and Law in the Second Russian Republic”, (1996) 14 Wisconsin Int'l L.J. 495, at 496.
114. Stephen White, Ian McAllister and Olga Kryshtanovskaya, “El'tsin and his Voters: Popular Support in the 1991 Russian Presidential Elections and After”, (1994) 46 Europe-Asia Studies 285.
115. Richard Pipes, “The Last Gasp of Russia's Communists”, New York Times, October 5, 1993, at A27;
116. Owen M. Fiss, “Judiciary Panel: Introductory Remarks”, in “Symposium: Constitutionalism in the Post-Cold War Era”, New York Times, at 1.
117. The Globe and Mail, December 13, 1993, at A2.
118. Charles Villa-Vilencio, “Whither South Africa?: Constitutionalism and Law-Making”, (1991), 40 Emory L.J. 141, at 150.
119. The amending formula requires a two-thirds vote in the National Assembly, and in some cases seventy-five percent, as well as the support of six provinces: The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, sec. 74. The African National Congress polled 62.6% of the votes in the April 1994 elections: The Globe and Mail, May 7, 1994, p. A16.
120. Johan van der Walt, The Human Rights Debate in South Africa: A Historical and Historicist Perspective”, in Roel de Lange, Gerritt van Maanen and van der Walt, eds., Human Rights and Property: A Bill of Rights in a Constitution for a New South Africa (Ars Aequi Libri, 1993);
121. Steven Mufson, “South Africa 1990”, (1991) 70 Foreign Affairs 121;
122. Laurence Harris, “South Africa's Economic and Social Transformation: From ‘No Middle Road’ to ‘No Alternative’”, (1993) 57 S. African Pol. Econ. 91, at 100.
123. Leo Katzen, “South Africa: Economy” in Africa South of the Sahara, (Europa Publications Ltd., 23rd ed., 1994).
124. Albie Sachs, “Towards a Bill of Rights for a Democratic South Africa”, (1989) 12 Hastings Int'l & Comp. L.R. 289, at 294.
125. Steven Mufson, Hastings Int'l & Comp. L.R., at 137.
126. Albie Sachs, Advancing Human Rights in South Africa (Capetown, Oxford University Press, 1992).
127. E.g., the Freedom Charter contained such proclamations as: “The national wealth of our country, the heritage of all South Africans, shall be restored to the people. The mineral wealth beneath the soil, the banks and monopoly industry shall be transferred to the ownership of the people as a whole….” in de Lange, van Maanen and van der Walt, eds., Hastings Int'l & Comp. L.R., at 96.
128. Ziyad Motala, “Independence of the Judiciary, Prospects and Limitations of Judicial Review in Terms of the United States Model in a New South African Legal Order: Towards an Alternative Judicial Structure”, (1991) 55 Albany L.R. 367, at 383, n. 117, 384–386.
129. See the Court's website for biographies of the judges. Albie Sachs is one of them. The tenure is a relatively long 12 years: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, Art. 176.
130. The tenure is a relatively long 12 years: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Art. 174.
131. Clement Ng'ong'ola, “The Post-Colonial Era in Relation to Land Expropriation Laws in Botswana, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe”, (1992) 41 Int'l Comp. L.Q. 117, at 134;
132. Ali A. Mazrui, “Planned Governance and the Liberal Revival in Africa: The Paradox of Anticipation”, (1992) 25 Cornell Int'l L.J. 541, at 548–549.
133. Seven years after the constitutional guarantees had expired, Zimbabwe had yet to act on its legal right to redistribute land from the 4,000 white farmers who own half of the arable land to the 8 million black farmers who live on the other half: International Herald Tribune, January 24–25, 1998; February 16, 1998.
134. The Globe and Mail, 3 February 1992, p. A1.
135. American Communications Association v. Douds 339 U.S. 382 (1950);
136. Dennis v. United States 341 U.S. 494 (1951).
137. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
138. Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643 (1961);
139. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).
140. Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).
141. A 1998 report of the Milton S. Eisenhower Foundation says that despite gains by black elites, the mass of black people in the U.S. suffer from its increasing class inequality: “The rich are getting richer and the poor are getting poorer and minorities are suffering disproportionately” (International Herald Tribune, March 2,1998, p. 3).
142. Raina Brubaker, “Missouri v. Jenkins: Widening the Mistakes of Milliken v. Bradley”, (1996) 46 Case Western Reserve L.R. 579.
143. ArLynn Lieber Presser, “Broken Dreams”, (May, 1991) Am. Bar Association J. 60.
144. According to the report of the Eisenhower Foundation, Am. Bar Association J.: “40 percent of minority children attend urban schools, where more than half of the students are poor and fail to reach even ‘basic achievement levels’”.
145. Mandel, Am. Bar Association J., at 185–91.
146. Am. Bar Association J., at 229–240.
147. Marc Mauer, “Americans Behind Bars — A Comparison of International Rates of Incarceration”, in Ward Churchill and J.J. Vander Wall, eds., Cages of Steel: The Politics of Imprisonment in the United States, (Maisonneuve Press, 1992).
148. “With 1.5 million prisoners, the United States incarcerates more people than any nation in the world, and one young African-American man in three is in prison, on parole or on probation”. International Herald Tribune, March 2, 1998, p. 3.
149. Beal v. Doe, 432 U.S. 438 (1977);
150. Harris v. McRae, 448 U.S. 297 (1980).
151. Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, 109 S.Ct. 3040 (1989).
152. Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 112 S.Ct. 2791 (1992).
153. Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153 (1976);
154. Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972).
155. McCleskey v. Kemp, 481 U.S. 279 (1987).
156. Blacks account for 1,349 of the 3,219 prisoners on death row. Of the 358 executions between 1977 and November 30,1997, 200 were of black prisoners. In the first 11 months of 1997 there were 70 executions: U.S. Department of Justice, “Prisoner Executions Rise Significantly”, Press Release of December 14, 1997.
157. Mandel, “Prisoner Executions Rise Significantly”, at 220–228.
158. Gerald N. Rosenberg, The Hollow Hope: Can Courts Bring About Social Change? (University of Chicago Press, 1991) at 156, 159.
159. Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976).
160. Robert W. McChesney, “The New Theology of the First Amendment: Class Privilege Over Democracy” (1998) 49 Monthly Review, No. 10, 17 at 19, 32.
161. Federal Election Commission v. National Conservative Political Action Committee (NCPAC), 470 U.S. 480 (1985);
162. Geoffrey M. Wardle, “Time to Develop a Post-Buckley Approach to Regulating the Contributions and Expenditures of Political Parties: Federal Election Commission v. Colorado Republican Federal Campaign Committee”, (1996) 46 Case Western Reserve L.R. 603.
163. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978).
164. Richmond v. JA. Croson Co., 488 U.S. 469 (1989);
165. Adarand Constructors Inc. v. Federico Pena, Secretary of Transportation et al. 115 S.Ct. 2097 (1995);
166. Sionaidh Douglas-Scott, “Affirmative Action in the U.S. Supreme Court: The Adarand Case — The Final Chapter?”, (1997) Public Law 43.
167. 124 Stephen M. Griffin, Public Law, at 116.
168. Michael Mandel, “Legal Politics Italian Style”, in C. Neal Tate and Torbjorn Vallinder, eds., The Global Expansion of Judicial Power (New York University Press, 1995) 261, at 268–272.
169. Alec Stone, The Birth of Judicial Politics in France: The Constitutional Council in Comparative Perspective (Oxford University Press, 1992) Chapter 3;
170. Alistair Cole, François Mitterand. A Study in Political Leadership (Routledge, 2nd ed., 1997) 34.
171. Alec Stone, “Judging Socialist Reform: The Politics of Coordinate Construction in France and Germany”, (1994) 26 Comp. Political Studies 443.
172. RJR-MacDonald Inc. v. Canada (Attorney General), (1995), 127 D.L.R. (4th) 1.
173. Black v. Law Society of Alberta (1989), 58 D.L.R. (4th) 317.
174. Michael Mandel, D.L.R., at 264–288.
175. H.C.L. Merillat, Land and the Constitution of India (Columbia University Press, 1970);
176. W.H. Morris-Jones, “The Politics of the Indian Constitution (1950)”, in Vernon Bogdanor, ed., Constitutions in Democratic Politics (Gower, 1988).
177. Neal P. Panish, “Chile Under Allende: The Decline of the Judiciary and the Rise of a State of Necessity”, (1987) 9 Loy. L. A. Int'l & Comp. L.J. 693.
178. Carl Schwarz, “Judges Under the Shadow: Judicial Independence in the United States and Mexico”, (1973) 3 Calif. W. Int'l L.J. 260.
179. Michael C. Meyer and William L. Sherman, The Course of Mexican History (Oxford University Press, 1991);
180. James W. Russell, “Mexico's Rising Inequality”, (1997) 49 Monthly Review, No. 7, at 28.
181. Constitution of the Republic of Cuba 1976 (as amended), Art. 75(c).
182. Benjamin Keen, ed., Latin American Civilization: History and Society, 1492 to the Present, (Westview Press, 6th ed., 1996) 392;
183. “Women's Equality in Cuba: What Difference Does a Revolution Make?”, (1986) 4 Law and Inequality 295;
184. International Herald Tribune, April 22, 1998, p. 1.
185. Mandel, International Herald Tribune, at 272–276.
186. Akira Osuka, “Welfare Rights” in Percy R. Luney, Jr., and Kazuyuki Takahashi, eds., Japanese Constitutional Law, (University of Tokyo Press, 1993) 269.
187. The general passivity of the court, punctuated by the occasional defence of property rights, is usually attributed to its seeing eye-to-eye with the conservative LDP governments that have ruled Japan since the war. See Yasuhiro Okudaira, “Forty Years of the Constitution and Its Various Influences: Japanese, American and European”, Japanese Constitutional Law., at 24
188. and Mutsuo Nakamura, “Freedom of Economic Activities and the Right to Property”, Japanese Constitutional Law., at 255.
189. Soobramoney v. Minister of Health (KwaZulu-Natal), CCT 32/97 (Constitutional Court, 26 November 1997)
190. where the textually unqualified “right to life” was held to be subject to available resources in a kidney dialysis case. The constitution also explicitly makes many of the social rights subject to “reasonable legislative and other measures, within… available resources, to achieve the progressive realisation of this right”. The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996, (sec. 27 — Health care, food, water and social security).
191. Carlos A. Ball, “The Making of a Transnational Capitalist Society: The Court of Justice, Social Policy, and Individual Rights Under the European Community's Legal Order”, (1996) 37 Harv. Int'l L.J. 307;
192. Stephen Weatherill and Paul Beaumont, EC Law (Penguin Books, 1993) 432.
193. Council of Europe, Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1950) and European Social Charter (1950);
194. David Harris, The European Social Charter, (University Press of Virginia, 1988). Neither the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights nor the International Covenant on Economic and Social Rights, administered by the United Nations, rises above unenforceable soft law.
195. See Benedetto Conforti, The Law and Practice of the United Nations (Kluwer, 1996) at 137–140.
196. Attorney General of Québec v. Québec Protestant School Boards, (1984), 10 D.L.R. (4th) 321 (Supreme Court of Canada).
197. Piero Calamandrei, “Cenni introduttivi sulla costituente e sui suoi lavori”, in Norberto Bobbio, ed., Piero Calamandrei, Scritti e discorsi politici, (La Nuova Italia, Vol. 2, 1966), 461–462 (my translation).
198. Stephen J. Silvia, “The Social Charter of the European Community: A Defeat for European Labour”, (1991) 44 Industrial and Labor Relations R. 626.
199. Mandel, Industrial and Labor Relations, at 354–369.
200. Jorge A. Vargas, “Mexico's Legal Revolution: An Appraisal of Its Recent Constit l-tional Changes, 1988–1995”, (1996) 25 Ga. Int'l & Comp. L. 497, at 546–548.
201. “Mexico Gets Chiapas Bill,” International Herald Tribune, March 17, 1998, p. 3.
202. Mandel, International Herald Tribune, at 109–112, 124–125.
203. Ewen MacAskill and Ian Black, “Cook Sets New Tone on Europe”, The Guardian, May 5, 1997.
204. See the Human Rights Bill [H.L.] 1998.
205. Commissione Bicamerale, Testo approvato il 4 novembre 1997: Progetto di Legge Costituzionale.
206. Peter H. Russell, Constitutional Odyssey (University of Toronto Press, 1992).
207. Donald Kommers, The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany, (Duke University Press, 2nd ed., 1997), at 222–224.
208. Schwarz, The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany.
209. Watson W. Galleher, “State Repression's Facade of Legality: The Military Courts in Chile”, (1988) 2 Temp. Int'l & Comp. L.J. 183.
210. Owen M. Fiss, “The Limits of Judicial Independence”, (1993) 25 Inter-American L.R. 1, at 75.
211. Mandel, Inter-American L.R., at 127–176.
212. Mandel, Inter-American L.R., at 273.
213. Kommers, Inter-American L.R., at 335–356.
214. Inter-American L.R., at 291–295.
215. Mandel, Inter-American L.R., at 399–405, 443–452.
216. Mandel, Inter-American L.R., at 273.
217. The Indian Supreme Court opposed affirmative action in education as early as 1962: W.H. Morris-Jones, Inter-American L.R., at 135.
218. Corte costituzionale, Sentenza 12 settembre 1995, n. 422;
219. Conseil costitutionnel, decision no. 82–146, 18 November 1982
220. (reproduced in John Bell, French Constitutional Law, (Oxford University Press, 1992) 349–352.
221. Mandel, French Constitutional Law, at 383–389.
222. “Women Win Job Ruling”, Guardian Weekly, November 23, 1997.
223. Kommers, Guardian Weekly, at 382–387.
224. Faurisson v. France, (1996) 17 Human Rights L.J. 253.
225. Mandel, Human Rights L.J., at 369–376.
226. Mandel, Human Rights L.J., at 240–257;
227. Human Rights L.J., at 276–279.
228. Kay Heilbronner, “The Concept of “Safe Country” and the Expeditious Asylum Procedures: A Western European Perspective”, (1993) 5 International Journal of Refugee Law 46–48;
229. Susan Soltesz, “Implications of the Conseil Costitutionnel's Immigration and Asylum Decision of August 1993”, (1995) 18 Boston College Int. & Comp. L.R. 265;
230. “Germany Turns Back Would-Be Refugees”, The Globe and Mail, July 2, 1993, p. 1.
231. Dworkin, The Globe and Mail, at 27.
232. McChesney, The Globe and Mail, at 32.
233. Edward S. Herman and Robert W. McChesney, The Global Media: The New Missionaries of Corporate Capitalism (Cassell, 1997) 147.
234. Dworkin, The Global Media: The New Missionaries of Corporate Capitalism, at 18.
235. Dworkin, The Global Media: The New Missionaries of Corporate Capitalism, at 10–11.
236. Evgeny B. Pashukanis, Law and Marxism: A General Theory, (Pluto Press, 1989) 149, n. 21.
237. Attributed to Maximilien Harden (1861–1927) by Eyck, Law and Marxism: A General Theory, Vol. II at 416.