Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: An easily overlooked neurologic emergency

Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment

Volumn 13, Issue , 2017, Pages 161-175

  Oruch, Ramadhan ^a   Pryme, Ian F ^b   Engelsen, Bernt A ^b   Lund, Anders ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BENGHAZI   (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BERGEN   (Norway)

Author keywords

Dopamine receptors; Hyperpyrexia; Neuroleptic malignant syndrome; Renal shutdown; Rhabdomyolysis; Sarcoplasmic reticulum

Indexed keywords

ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE; ANXIOLYTIC AGENT; APOMORPHINE; ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CLOZAPINE; CREATINE KINASE; DANTROLENE; INFUSION FLUID; INTERLEUKIN 1ALPHA; INTERLEUKIN 6; LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE; MYOGLOBIN; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR;

ABNORMAL BLOOD PRESSURE; AGE DISTRIBUTION; AGITATION; ANXIETY; CANCER PROGNOSIS; CATATONIA; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLOZAPINE INDUCED HYPERPYREXIA; COMA; DELIRIUM; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG USE; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; ENDOTRACHEAL INTUBATION; GENETICS; HUMAN; HYPERPYREXIA; INTENSIVE CARE; LEUKOCYTOSIS; MALIGNANT CATATONIA; MALIGNANT HYPERTHERMIA; MENTAL HEALTH; MUSCLE CRAMP; MUSCLE RIGIDITY; NEUROLEPTIC MALIGNANT SYNDROME; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; RHABDOMYOLYSIS; RISK FACTOR; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SEROTONIN SYNDROME; SEX DIFFERENCE; THROMBOCYTOSIS; TREMOR;

EID: 85010402984     PISSN: None     EISSN: 11782021     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2147/NDT.S118438     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Carbone JR. The neuroleptic malignant and serotonin syndromes. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2000;18(2):317-325.
2. Caroff SN, Mann SC. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Med Clin North Am. 1993;77(1):185-202.
3. Caroff SN, Mann SC. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and malignant hyperthermia. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1993;21(4):477-478.
4. Adnet P, Lestavel P, Krivosic-Horber R. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Br J Anaesth. 2000;85(1):129-135.
5. Hasan S, Buckley P. Novel antipsychotics and the neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review and critique. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155(8):1113-1116.
6. Kuchibatla SS, Cheema SA, Chakravarthy KS, Sayeh HG. A case report of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. BMJ Case Rep. 2009;2009.
7. Patel U, Agrawal M, Krishnan P, Niranjan S. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome presenting as pulmonary edema and severe bronchorrhea. J Natl Med Assoc. 2002;94(4):279-282.
8. Adityanjee, Sajatovic M, Munshi KR. Neuropsychiatric sequelae of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2005;28(4):197-204.
9. Belvederi Murri M, Guaglianone A, Bugliani M, et al. Second-generation antipsychotics and neuroleptic malignant syndrome: systematic review and case report analysis. Drugs R D. 2015;15(1):45-62.
10. Delay J, Pichot P, Lemperiere T, Elissalde B, Peigne F. Un neuroleptiques majeur non phénothiazine et non réserpine, l’halopéridol dans le traitement des psychoses. [A non-phenothiazine and non-reserpine major neuroleptic, haloperidol, in the treatment of psychoses]. Ann Med Psychol (Paris). 1960;118(1):145-152. French.
11. Buckley PF, Hutchinson M. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;58(3):271-273.
12. Otani K, Horiuchi M, Kondo T, Kaneko S, Fukushima Y. Is the predisposition to neuroleptic malignant syndrome genetically transmitted? Br J Psychiatry. 1991;158:850-853.
13. Zweig YR, Galvin JE. Lewy body dementia: the impact on patients and caregivers. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2014;6(2):21.
14. Pelonero AL, Levenson JL, Pandurangi AK. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review. Psychiatr Serv. 1998;49(9):1163-1172.
15. Hernandez JL, Palacios-Araus L, Echevarria S, Herran A, Campo JF, Riancho JA. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Postgrad Med J. 1997;73(866):779-784.
16. Aleman A, Kahn RS, Selten JP. Sex differences in the risk of schizophrenia: evidence from meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60(6):565-571.
17. Haack S, Seeringer A, Thurmann PA, Becker T, Kirchheiner J. Sex-specific differences in side effects of psychotropic drugs: genes or gender? Pharmacogenomics. 2009;10(9):1511-1526.
18. Leung A, Chue P. Sex differences in schizophrenia, a review of the literature. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 2000;401:3-38.
19. Pollock BG. Gender differences in psychotropic drug metabolism. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1997;33(2):235-241.
20. Chaves AC, Seeman MV. Sex selection bias in schizophrenia antipsychotic trials. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2006;26(5):489-494.
21. Alexander PJ, Thomas RM, Das A. Is risk of neuroleptic malignant syndrome increased in the postpartum period? J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59(5):254-255.
22. Keck PE Jr, Pope HG Jr, Cohen BM, McElroy SL, Nierenberg AA. Risk factors for neuroleptic malignant syndrome. A case-control study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46(10):914-918.
23. Khaldi S, Kornreich C, Choubani Z, Gourevitch R. Antipsychotiques atypiques et syndrome malin des neuroleptiques: bréve revue de la littérature. [Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and atypical antipsychotics: a brief review]. Encephale. 2008;34(6):618-624. French.
24. Gupta V, Magon R, Mishra BP, Sidhu GB, Mahajan R. Risk factors in neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Indian J Psychiatry. 2003;45(1):30-35.
25. Keyser DL, Rodnitzky RL. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in Parkinson’s disease after withdrawal or alteration of dopaminergic therapy. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151(4):794-796.
26. Hermesh H, Aizenberg D, Weizman A, Lapidot M, Mayor C, Munitz H. Risk for definite neuroleptic malignant syndrome. A prospective study in 223 consecutive in-patients. Br J Psychiatry. 1992;161:254-257.
27. Berardi D, Amore M, Keck PE Jr, Troia M, Dell’Atti M. Clinical and pharmacologic risk factors for neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a case-control study. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;44(8):748-754.
28. Koch M, Chandragiri S, Rizvi S, Petrides G, Francis A. Catatonic signs in neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Compr Psychiatry. 2000;41(1):73-75.
29. Sawant NS, Kate NS, Bhatankar SS, Kulkarni PS. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in cycloserine-induced psychosis. Indian J Pharmacol. 2015;47(3):328-329.
30. Guillemin GJ, Smith DG, Kerr SJ, et al. Characterisation of kynurenine pathway metabolism in human astrocytes and implications in neuropathogenesis. Redox Rep. 2000;5(2-3):108-111.
31. Guillemin GJ, Smythe G, Takikawa O, Brew BJ. Expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase and production of quinolinic acid by human microglia, astrocytes, and neurons. Glia. 2005;49(1):15-23.
32. Fukuda K. Integrated theory to unify status among schizophrenia and manic depressive illness. Med Hypotheses. 2015;85(4):506-511.
33. Nagatsu T, Ichinose H. Regulation of pteridine-requiring enzymes by the cofactor tetrahydrobiopterin. Mol Neurobiol. 1999;19(1):79-96.
34. Riddell DR, Owen JS. Nitric oxide and platelet aggregation. Vitam Horm. 1999;57:25-48.
35. Jendzjowsky NG, Just TP, Jones KE, DeLorey DS. Acute tetrahydrobiopterin supplementation attenuates sympathetic vasoconstrictor responsiveness in resting and contracting skeletal muscle of healthy rats. Physiol Rep. 2014;2 (10).
36. Vasquez-Vivar J, Kalyanaraman B, Martasek P. The role of tetrahydrobiopterin in superoxide generation from eNOS: enzymology and physiological implications. Free Radic Res. 2003;37(2):121-127.
37. Mary K, Ian J. Tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency. In: Natan G, Hans HG, editors. Oxidative Stress and Free Radical Damage in Neurology. Oxidative Stress in Applied Basic Research and Clinical Practice. New York, NY: Springer; 2011:225-234.
38. Berman BD. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review for neurohospitalists. Neurohospitalist. 2011;1(1):41-47.
39. Wittmann O, Sadot E, Bisker-Kassif O, Scolnik D, Tavor O, Glatstein MM. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with metoclopramide use in a boy: case report and review of the literature. Am J Ther. 2016.
40. Musselman ME, Saely S. Diagnosis and treatment of drug-induced hyperthermia. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2013;70(1):34-42.
41. Chandran GJ, Mikler JR, Keegan DL. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: case report and discussion. CMAJ. 2003;169(5):439-442.
42. Strawn JR, Keck PE Jr, Caroff SN. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(6):870-876.
43. Seitz DP, Gill SS. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome complicating antipsychotic treatment of delirium or agitation in medical and surgical patients: case reports and a review of the literature. Psychosomatics. 2009;50(1):8-15.
44. Velamoor VR. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Recognition, prevention and management. Drug Saf. 1998;19(1):73-82.
45. Gurrera RJ. Is neuroleptic malignant syndrome a neurogenic form of malignant hyperthermia? Clin Neuropharmacol. 2002;25(4):183-193.
46. Nagel M, Freisberg S, Junghanns K, Moll CK, Willenborg B. Das maligne neuroleptische syndrome (NMS) - Eine systematische ϋbersicht. [The neuroleptic malignant syndrome]. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr. 2015;83(7):373-380. German.
47. Gerlach M, Riederer P, Scheller D. Mechanisms underlying and medical management of L-Dopa-associated motor complications. J Neural Transm. 2011;118(12):1659-1660.
48. Wild EJ, Tabrizi SJ. The differential diagnosis of chorea. Pract Neurol. 2007;7(6):360-373.
49. Praharaj SK, Jana AK, Sarkar S, Sinha VK. Olanzapine-induced tardive oculogyric crisis. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009;29(6):604-606.
50. Velamoor VR, Norman RM, Caroff SN, Mann SC, Sullivan KA, Antelo RE. Progression of symptoms in neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1994;182(3):168-173.
51. Levenson JL. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 1985;142(10):1137-1145.
52. Neuhut R, Lindenmayer JP, Silva R. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in children and adolescents on atypical antipsychotic medication: a review. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2009;19(4):415-422.
53. Latham J, Campbell D, Nichols W, Mott T. Clinical inquiries. How much can exercise raise creatine kinase level - and does it matter? J Fam Pract. 2008;57(8):545-547.
54. Arslankoylu AE, Kutuk MO, Okuyaz C, Toros F. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome due to risperidone misdiagnosed as status epilepticus. Pediatr Rep. 2011;3(3):e19.
55. Henderson VW, Wooten GF. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a pathogenetic role for dopamine receptor blockade? Neurology. 1981;31(2):132-137.
56. Figa-Talamanca L, Gualandi C, Di Meo L, Di Battista G, Neri G, Lo Russo F. Hyperthermia after discontinuance of levodopa and bromocriptine therapy: impaired dopamine receptors a possible cause. Neurology. 1985;35(2):258-261.
57. Sahoo MK, Agarwal S, Biswas H. Catatonia versus neuroleptic malignant syndrome: the diagnostic dilemma and treatment. Ind Psychiatry J. 2014;23(2):163-165.
58. Gragnani A, Cezillo MV, Oliveira AF, Ferreira LM. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in trauma patient. Burns. 2015;41(6):1147-1151.
59. Nachreiner R, Balledux J, Zieger M, Viegas O, Sood R. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with metoclopramide in a burn patient. J Burn Care Res. 2006;27(2):237-241.
60. Still J, Friedman B, Law E, Deppe S, Epperly N, Orlet H. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in a burn patient. Burns. 1998;24(6):573-575.
61. Dixit S, Dutta MK, Namdeo M. A rare case of myxedema coma with neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS). J Clin Diagn Res. 2015;9(5):VD01-VD03.
62. Al Danaf J, Madara J, Dietsche C. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a case aimed at raising clinical awareness. Case Rep Med. 2015;2015:769576.
63. Margetic B, Aukst-Margetic B. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and its controversies. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2010;19(5):429-435.
64. Northoff G. Catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome: psychopathology and pathophysiology. J Neural Transm. 2002;109(12):1453-1467.
65. Sachdev PS. A rating scale for neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Psychiatry Res. 2005;135(3):249-256.
66. Haddow AM, Harris D, Wilson M, Logie H. Clomipramine induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome and pyrexia of unknown origin. BMJ. 2004;329(7478):1333-1335.
67. Lejoyeux M, Fineyre F, Ades J. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 1992;149(10):1410-1411.
68. Sternbach H. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148(6):705-713.
69. Castillo E, Rubin RT, Holsboer-Trachsler E. Clinical differentiation between lethal catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146(3):324-328.
70. Fleischhacker WW, Unterweger B, Kane JM, Hinterhuber H. The neuroleptic malignant syndrome and its differentiation from lethal catatonia. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1990;81(1):3-5.
71. Caroff SN, Mann SC, Keck PE Jr. Specific treatment of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;44(6):378-381.
72. Patel SS, Allin MP. Physical complications in early clozapine treatment: a case report and implications for safe monitoring. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2011;1(1):25-29.
73. Bruijnzeel D, Suryadevara U, Tandon R. Antipsychotic treatment of schizophrenia: an update. Asian J Psychiatr. 2014;11:3-7.
74. Lowe CM, Grube RR, Scates AC. Characterization and clinical management of clozapine-induced fever. Ann Pharmacother. 2007;41(10):1700-1704.
75. Jeong SH, Ahn YM, Koo YJ, Kang UG, Kim YS. The characteristics of clozapine-induced fever. Schizophr Res. 2002;56(1-2):191-193.
76. Young CR, Bowers MB Jr, Mazure CM. Management of the adverse effects of clozapine. Schizophr Bull. 1998;24(3):381-390.
77. Kohen I, Afzal N, Hussain S, Manu P. Increases in C-reactive protein may predict recurrence of clozapine-induced fever. Ann Pharmacother. 2009;43(1):143-146.
78. Bruno V, Valiente-Gomez A, Alcoverro O. Clozapine and fever: a case of continued therapy with clozapine. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2015;38(4):151-153.
79. Marmura MJ. Use of dopamine antagonists in treatment of migraine. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2012;14(1):27-35.
80. Shalev A, Hermesh H, Munitz H. Mortality from neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry. 1989;50(1):18-25.
81. Ghani SO, Ahmed W, Marco LA. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and severe thrombocytopenia: case report and literature review. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2000;12(1):51-54.
82. Butwicka A, Krystyna S, Retka W, Wolanczyk T. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in an adolescent with CYP2D6 deficiency. Eur J Pediatr. 2014;173(12):1639-1642.
83. Gupta S, Racaniello AA. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with amoxapine and lithium in an older adult. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2000;12(2):107-109.
84. Maniam T, Rahman MA. All elevated creatine kinase is not neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Med J Malaysia. 1994;49(3):252-254.
85. Venkatasubramanian G, Yogananda BH, Gangadhar BN. Risperidone-induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a case report. Indian J Psychiatry. 2000;42(1):101-103.
86. Adityanjee. The myth of elevated serum creatine phosphokinase level and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Br J Psychiatry. 1991;158:706-707.
87. Hermesh H, Manor I, Shiloh R, et al. High serum creatinine kinase level: possible risk factor for neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2002;22(3):252-256.
88. Rosebush P, Stewart T. A prospective analysis of 24 episodes of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146(6):717-725.
89. Nisijima K, Shioda K. A rare case of neuroleptic malignant syndrome without elevated serum creatine kinase. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2014;10:403-407.
90. Modi S, Dharaiya D, Schultz L, Varelas P. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: complications, outcomes, and mortality. Neurocrit Care. 2016;24(1):97-103.
91. Mackin P. Cardiac side effects of psychiatric drugs. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2008;23(Suppl 1):3-14.
92. Beach SR, Celano CM, Noseworthy PA, Januzzi JL, Huffman JC. QTc prolongation, torsades de pointes, and psychotropic medications. Psychosomatics. 2013;54(1):1-13.
93. Leucht S, Cipriani A, Spineli L, et al. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of 15 antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Lancet. 2013;382(9896):951-962.
94. Eiser AR, Neff MS, Slifkin RF. Acute myoglobinuric renal failure. A consequence of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Arch Intern Med. 1982;142(3):601-603.
95. Lee JW. Serum iron in catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;44(6):499-507.
96. Lee HC, Kim JM, Lim JK, Jo YS, Kim SK. Central hyperthermia treated with baclofen for patient with pontine hemorrhage. Ann Rehabil Med. 2014;38(2):269-272.
97. Sung CY, Lee TH, Chu NS. Central hyperthermia in acute stroke. Eur Neurol. 2009;62(2):86-92.
98. Takahashi Y, Mori H, Mishina M, et al. Autoantibodies and cell-mediated autoimmunity to NMDA-type GluRepsilon2 in patients with Rasmussen’s encephalitis and chronic progressive epilepsia partialis continua. Epilepsia. 2005;46(Suppl 5):152-158.
99. Lancaster E. The diagnosis and treatment of autoimmune encephalitis. J Clin Neurol. 2016;12(1):1-13.
100. Splendiani A, Felli V, Di Sibio A, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance spectroscopy in a young male patient with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis and uncommon cerebellar involvement: a case report with review of the literature. Neuroradiol J. 2016;29(1):30-35.
101. Heine J, Pruss H, Bartsch T, Ploner CJ, Paul F, Finke C. Imaging of autoimmune encephalitis - relevance for clinical practice and hippocampal function. Neuroscience. 2015;309:68-83.
102. Dhib-Jalbut S, Hesselbrock R, Mouradian MM, Means ED. Bromocriptine treatment of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry. 1987;48(2):69-73.
103. Bonuccelli U, Piccini P, Corsini GU, Muratorio A. Apomorphine in malignant syndrome due to levodopa withdrawal. Ital J Neurol Sci. 1992;13(2):169-170.
104. Rosenberg MR, Green M. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Review of response to therapy. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149(9):1927-1931.
105. Hermesh H, Aizenberg D, Weizman A. A successful electroconvulsive treatment of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1987;75(3):237-239.
106. Trollor JN, Sachdev PS. Electroconvulsive treatment of neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review and report of cases. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 1999;33(5):650-659.
107. Davis JM, Janicak PG, Sakkas P, Gilmore C, Wang Z. Electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Convuls Ther. 1991;7(2):111-120.
108. Mendhekar DN, Duggal HS. Persistent amnesia as a sequel of olanzapine-induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006;18(4):552-553.
109. Wu YF, Kan YS, Yang CH. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with bromocriptine withdrawal in Parkinson’s disease - a case report. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2011;33(3):301.e7-e8.
110. Sekijima Y, Hoshi KI, Kasai H, et al. Three patients with isolated adrenocorticotropin deficiency presenting with neuroleptic malignant syndrome-like symptoms. Intern Med. 2001;40(6):510-514.
111. Morigaki Y, Iga J, Kameoka N, Sumitani S, Ohmori T. Psychiatric symptoms in a patient with isolated adrenocorticotropin deficiency: case report and literature review. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2014;36(4):449.e443-e445.
112. Pope HG Jr, Aizley HG, Keck PE Jr, McElroy SL. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: long-term follow-up of 20 cases. J Clin Psychiatry. 1991;52(5):208-212.
113. Coffey RJ, Edgar TS, Francisco GE, et al. Abrupt withdrawal from intrathecal baclofen: recognition and management of a potentially life-threatening syndrome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83(6):735-741.
114. Luchini F, Medda P, Mariani MG, Mauri M, Toni C, Perugi G. Electroconvulsive therapy in catatonic patients: efficacy and predictors of response. World J Psychiatry. 2015;5(2):182-192.
115. Oruch R, Elderbi MA, Khattab HA, Pryme IF, Lund A. Lithium: a review of pharmacology, clinical uses, and toxicity. Eur J Pharmacol. 2014;740:464-473.
116. Suzuki T, Uchida H, Watanabe K, Kashima H. A potentially aborted neuroleptic malignant syndrome following seclusion against uncontrollable water intoxication. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2008;41(1):164-170.
117. Oruch R, Pryme IF, Lund A. The ideal antipsychotic: hybrid between typical “haloperidol” and the atypical “colzapine” antipsychotic. J Bioanal Biomed. 2015;7(4):124-135.
118. Oruch R, Lund A, Pryme IF, Holmsen H. An intercalation mechanism as a mode of action exerted by psychotropic drugs: results of altered phospholipid substrate availabilities in membranes? J Chem Biol. 2010;3(2):67-88.
119. Oruch R, Pryme IF, Holmsen H. Effects of psychotropic drugs on the thrombin-induced liberation of arachidonate in human platelets. Saudi Med J. 2008;29(10):1397-1407.
120. Oruch R, Hodneland E, Pryme IF, Holmsen H. Psychotropic drugs interfere with the tight coupling of polyphosphoinositide cycle metabolites in human platelets: a result of receptor-independent drug intercalation in the plasma membrane? Biochim Biophys Acta. 2008;1778(10):2165-2176.
121. Kulkarni SK, Naidu PS. Pathophysiology and drug therapy of tardive dyskinesia: current concepts and future perspectives. Drugs Today (Barc). 2003;39(1):19-49.
122. Kaminska T, Szuster-Ciesielska A, Wysocka A, Marmurowska-Michalowska H, Dubas-Slemp H, Kandefer-Szerszen M. Serum cytokine level and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by blood neutrophils from a schizophrenic patient with hypersensitivity to neuroleptics. Med Sci Monit. 2003;9 (7):CS71-CS75.
123. Dursun SM, Oluboka OJ, Devarajan S, Kutcher SP. High-dose vitamin E plus vitamin B6 treatment of risperidone-related neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Psychopharmacol. 1998;12(2):220-221.
124. Verma R, Junewar V, Rathaur BP. An atypical case of neuroleptic malignant syndrome precipitated by valproate. BMJ Case Rep. 2014;2014.
125. Tadke RR, Suryavanshi P. Use of intravenous valproate in a patient with neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006;18(1):131-132.
126. Monda M, Viggiano A, Viggiano E, Messina G, Tafuri D, De Luca V. Sympathetic and hyperthermic reactions by orexin A: role of cerebral catecholaminergic neurons. Regul Pept. 2007;139(1-3):39-44.
127. Rasmussen K, Hsu MA, Yang Y. The orexin-1 receptor antagonist SB-334867 blocks the effects of antipsychotics on the activity of A9 and A10 dopamine neurons: implications for antipsychotic therapy. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007;32(4):786-792.
128. Monda M, Viggiano A, Viggiano E, Messina G, Tafuri D, De Luca V. Quetiapine lowers sympathetic and hyperthermic reactions due to cerebral injection of orexin A. Neuropeptides. 2006;40(5):357-363.
129. Monda M, Viggiano A, Mondola R, et al. Olanzapine blocks the sympathetic and hyperthermic reactions due to cerebral injection of orexin A. Peptides. 2008;29(1):120-126.
130. Tanii H, Taniguchi N, Niigawa H, et al. Development of an animal model for neuroleptic malignant syndrome: heat-exposed rabbits with haloperidol and atropine administration exhibit increased muscle activity, hyperthermia, and high serum creatine phosphokinase level. Brain Res. 1996;743(1-2):263-270.
131. Schattner A, Kitroser E, Cohen JD. Fatal neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with quetiapine. Am J Ther. 2016;23(5):e1209-e1210.
132. Lertxundi U, Ruiz AI, Aspiazu MA, et al. Adverse reactions to antipsychotics in Parkinson disease: an analysis of the Spanish pharmacovigilance database. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2015;38(3):69-84.
133. Harter C, Obier C, Druschky KF, Eikelmann B. Malignes neuroleptisches syndrom durch amisulprid. [Malignant neuroleptic syndrome associated with amisulpride]. Nervenarzt. 2008;79(1):86-89. German.
134. Yaman A, Kendirli T, Odek C, et al. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with metoclopramide in a child. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56(5):535-537.
135. Moosavi SM, Ahmadi M, Monajemi MB. Acute dystonia due to citalopram treatment: a case series. Glob J Health Sci. 2014;6(6):295-299.
136. Sharon N, Cullen C, Martinez K. A complex presentation of pediatric neuroleptic malignant syndrome related to polypharmacy in a 12-year-old male. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2016;26(6):571-573.
137. Yang Y, Guo Y, Zhang A. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in a patient treated with lithium carbonate and haloperidol. Shanghai Arch Psychiatry. 2014;26(6):368-370.