A Return to Communitarianism? Reacting to Serious Breaches of Obligations Arising under Peremptory Norms of General International Law under the Law of State Responsibility and United Nations Law

Canadian Yearbook of International Law

Volumn 42, Issue , 2005, Pages 197-251

  Toufayan, Mark ^a  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW   (United States)

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EID: 85008682904     PISSN: 00690058     EISSN: 19250169     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0069005800008523     Document Type: Review

References (310)

1. P. E. Corbett, Law and Society in the Relations of States (New York: Harcourt, 1951) at 12-13.
2. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, GA Resolution 260 (A) (III), UN GAOR, 3rd Sess., Supp. No. 1921, 9 December 1948, 78 U. N. T. S. 227 [Genocide Convention].
3. Charter of the United Nations, 26 June 1945, Can. T. S. 1955 No. 7 [UN Charter].
4. See E. de Vattel, The Law of Nations on the Principles of Natural Law, trans. C. Fenwick, 1964, (Philadelphia: T and J. W. Johnson, 1758) at xii.
5. For the full text of the recommendations, see Press Release SG/SM/9197, available online at (date accessed: 16 October 2004).
6. See on this point Fifth Report on State Responsibility by Mr. Roberto Ago, Special Rapporteur ("Content of the obligation breached"), UN Doc. A/CN.4/291 and Add.1 and 2
7. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1976, vol. 2, Part 1, New York, 1976, at 48 ff [Fifth Report of Roberto Ago].
8. See H. Grotius, De jure belli ac pacis libri tres, Book II, ed. by Carnegie, trans. F. Kelsey, 1625, Chapter XX at XL.
9. See A MoreSecure World: Our Shared Responsibility, Report of the Secretary-General's High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, at paras. 248-49 and 256, available online at (date accessed: 9 December 2004) [More Secure World].
10. See, for example, on this point Difference Relating to Immunity from Legal Process of a Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, Advisory Opinion, [1999] I. C. J. Rep. 62 at 88-89, para. 66;
11. L. Condorelli, "Le Statut des Forces de l'ONU et le Droit International Humanitaire" (1995) 78 Rivista di Diritto Internazionale 881 at 897;
12. C. F. Amerasinghe, Principles of the Institutional Law of International Organizations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996) at 241, footnotes 51 and 52 and references therein.
13. For a thorough analysis of possible legal grounds for such responsibility, see P. Klein, La responsabilité des organisations internationales dans les ordres juridiques internes et en droit des gens (Bruxelles: Bruylant, 1998) at 430-520.
14. See B. Graefrath, "Complicity in the Law of State Responsibility" (1996) 29 Rev. B. D. I. 370 at 374;
15. J. Quigley, "Complicity in International Law: A New Direction in the Law of State Responsibility" (1986) 57 Brit. Y. B. Int'l L. 77 at 86-87.
16. See on this point E. Butkiewicz, "The Premises of International Responsibility of Inter-Governmental Organizations" (1981-2) 11 Pol. Y. B. Int'l L. 117 at 125;
17. See First Report on Responsibility of International Organizations by Mr. Giorgio Gaja, Special Rapporteur, ILC, 55th Sess., UN Doc. A/CN.4/532 (May 2003), at 5, para. 8, and 17, para. 33.
18. The draft articles are accessible online at (date accessed: 31 July, 2004).
19. See also Second Report on Responsibility of International Organizations by Mr. Giorgio Gaja, Special Rapporteur, ILC, 556th Sess., UN Doc. A/CN.4/541 (May 2004).
20. B. Bollecker-Stern, Le préjudice dans la théorie de la responsabilité internationale (Paris: Pédone, 1973) at 50 ff, particularly at 58;
21. P. Weil, "Towards Relative Normativity in International Law?" (1983) 77 A. J. I. L. 413 at 431;
22. M. Virally, "Le Principe de Réciprocité en Droit International Contemporain" (1967) 122 Rec. des Cours 1 at 26;
23. and C. Chinkin, Third Parties in International Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993) at 1-7.
24. B. Simma, "Bilateralism and Community Interest in the Law of State Responsibility", in Y. Dinstein and M. Tabory, eds., International Law at a Time of Perplexity: Essays in the Honor of S. Rosenne (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1989) at 822 ff.
25. R.-J. Dupuy, La communauté internationale entre le mythe et l'histoire (Paris: Economica, 1986) at 180;
26. J. Charney, "Universal International Law" (1993) 87 A. J. I. L. 529 at 530 ff.
27. See L. Henkin, "Human Rights and State Sovereignty" (1995) 25 Ga. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 31 at 34-35.
28. R. St. J. Macdonald, "The Principle of Solidarity in Public International Law", in C. Dominicé, R. Patry, and C. Reymond, eds., Études de droit international en l'honneur de Pierre Lalive (Bâle: Francfort-sur-le-main, 1993) at 295, 301.
29. See also G. M. Abi-Saab, "International Law and the International Community: The Long Road to Universality", in R. St-J. Macdonald, ed., Essays in Honour of Wang Tieya (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1994) at 97 ff.;
30. and P. Allott, Eunomia: New Order for a New World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990) at 254-57, 285-88.
31. E. Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society (New York: Free Press, 1964) at 73.
32. For a thoughtful account of Grotius's theory of self-preservation and human sociability in his work on the law of nations, see B. Kingsbury, "A Grotian Tradition of Theory and Practice?: Grotius, Law and Moral Skepticism in the Thought of Hedley Bull" (1997) 17 Q. L. R. 3.
33. See H. Bull, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics, 1 st ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977) at 13, 16-18, 22;
34. T. M. Franck, The Power of Legitimacy among Nations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990) at 189-94, 195-98;
35. L. Henkin, "The Mythology of Sovereignty", in Macdonald, ed., Essays in Honour of Wang Tieya, supra note 17 at 354-55, 358-59;
36. C. Tomuschat, "Obligations Arising for States without or against Their Will" (1993-IV) 241 Rec. des Cours 195 at 211;
37. F. Tesón, "International Obligation and the Theory of Hypothetical Consent" (1990) 15 Yale J. Int'l L. 84 at 112-18;
38. and A. Bleckmann, "General Theory of Obligations under Public International Law" (1996) 38 Germ. Y. B. Int'l L. 26 at 32.
39. This language is borrowed from O. Schachter, "Entangled Treaty and Custom", in Dinstein and Tabory, supra note 15 at 733-35.
40. H. Chodosh, "Neither Treaty or Custom: The Emergence of Declarative International Law" (1991) 26 Tex. Int'l L. J. 87;
41. B. Simma and P. Alston, "The Sources of Human Rights Law: Custom, Jus Cogens, and General Principles" (1992) 12 Aus. Y. B. Int'l L. 82 at 98-99;
42. T. Meron, "On a Hierarchy of International Human Rights" (1986) 80 A. J. I. L. 1 at 19-20.
43. J. A. Frowein, "Reactions by Not Directly Affected States to Breaches of Public International Law" (1994-IV) 248 Rec. des Cours 344 at 365;
44. M. Ragazzi, The Concept of International Obligations Erga Omnes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997) 1 at 187;
45. W. Jenks, "The Will of the World Community as the Basis of Obligation in International Law", in J. Basdevant, ed., Hommage d'une Génération de Juristes au Président Basdevant (Paris: A. Pédone, 1960) 1 at 15.
46. Case Concerning the Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, [1970] I. CJ. Rep. 3 at 32, paras. 33, 34 [Barcelona Traction case].
47. For an analysis of compliance with, and enforcement of, these obligations, see C. J. Tams, Enforcement of Erga Omnes Obligations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005);
48. K. Zemanek, "New Trends in the Enforcement of Erga Omnes Obligations" (2000) 4 Max. Plank Y. B. UN L. 1.
49. Case Concerning Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, [1951] I. C. J. Rep. 15 at 46-47 (dissenting opinion of Judges Guerrero, McNair, Read, and Hsu Mo) [Reservations to the Genocide Convention case].
50. See Barcelona Traction case, supra note 25
51. and the Case Concerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)) (Preliminary Objections), Judgment of 11 July 1996, [1996] I. C. J. Rep. 4 at 24-25, para. 31.
52. See on this point Study on the "Function and Scope of the Lex Specialis Rule and the Question of 'Self-Contained Regimes'": Preliminary Report by Mr. Martti Koskenniemi, Chairman of the Study Group, ILC, 56th Sess., UN Doc. ILC (LVI)/SG/FIL/CCCRD.1/Add.1 at 27-28 [unpublished text; on file with author];
53. Fourth Report on State Responsibility by Mr. Gaetano Arangio-Ruiz, Special Rapporteur, UN Doc. A/CN.4/444/Add. 1-3
54. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1992, vol. 2, Part. 1, paras. 97-127, New York, 1995, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER. A/1992/Add.1 (Part 1);
55. A. Cassese, International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2001) at 208;
56. M. T. Kamminga, Inter-State Accountability for Violations of Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992) at 179-83;
57. B. Simma, "Self-Contained Regimes" (1985) 16 Neth. YB. Int'l L. 111 at 129-35;
58. Frowein, "Reactions by Not Directly Affected States", supra note 24 at 400.
59. See C. Dominicé, "The International Responsibility of States for Breaches of Multilateral Obligations" (1999) 10 EJ. I. L. 353 at 354-55, 359;
60. J. Crawford, P. Bodeau, and J. Peel, "The ILC's Draft Articles on State Responsibility: Toward Completion of a Second Reading" (2000) 94:4 A. J. I. L. 660 at 672-73.
61. See State Responsibility: Tides and Texts of the Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts Adopted by the Drafting Committee on Second Reading, ILC, 53rd Sess., UN Doc. A/CN.4/L.6o2/Rev. 1 (26 July 2001), Part III, Articles 48 (1) (b) and 54 [Draft Articles on Second Reading].
62. See on this point Third Report on State Responsibility by Mr. James Crawford, Special Rapporteur, ILC, 52nd Sess., UN Doc. A/CN.4/507/Adds.4 (2000) at 391-94 [Third Report of James Crawford];
63. D. Alland, "Countermeasures of General Interest" (2002) 13:5 E. J. I. L. 1221 at 1232-33.
64. See Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Fifty-Third Session, UN GAOR, 56th Sess., Supp. No. 10, UN Doc. A/56/10 (November 2001) at 285, para. 8 [Report on Fifty-Third Session].
65. This language is borrowed from the Procedure for Dealing with Communications Relating to Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 27 May 1970, ECOSOC Resolution 1503 (XLVIII), 48 UN ESCOR, Supp. (No. 1A) 8, UN Doc. E/4832/Add.1 (1970).
66. Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Thirty-Seventh Session, UN Doc. A/40/10
67. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1985, vol. 2, Part 2 at 27, New York, 1986, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER. A/1985/Add.1 (Part 2).
68. See also Responsibilities of States: Commentaries and Observations by Governments, ILC, 50th Sess., UN Doc. A/CN.4/488 (1998) at 95-102;
69. Sixth Report on the Content, Forms and Degrees of International Responsibility (Part 2 of the Draft Articles), by Mr. Willem Riphagen, Special Rapporteur, UN Doc. A/CN.4/389 and Corr. 1
70. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1985, vol. 2, Part 1, commentary on Art. 5 (2) (e) (iii), New York, UN Doc. A/40/100 (1985);
71. M. Akehurst, "Reprisals by Third States" (1970) 44 Brit. Y. B. Int'l L. 1 at 15;
72. B. Conforti, "Cours Général de Droit International Public" (1988-IV) 212 Rec. des Cours 9 at 196-2o1;
73. Third Report of James Crawford, supra note 31 at 391-400.
74. See also E. Zoller, Peaceful Unilateral Remedies: An Analysis of Countermeasures (New York: Transnational Publishers, 1984) at 117;
75. L.-A. Sicilianos, Les reactions décentralisées à l'illicite (Paris: L. G. D. J., 1990) at 110-75;
76. O. Yousif Elagab, The Legality of Non-Forcible Counter-Measures in International Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988) at 56-57;
77. H. Thierry, "L'Evolution du droit international. Cours général de droit international public" (1990-II) 222 Rec. des Cours 9 at 104-7;
78. P.-M. Dupuy, "Observations sur la pratique récente des sanctions de l'illicite" (1983) 87 Rev. D. I. P. 505 at 537-38;
79. Frowein, "Reactions by Not Directly Affected States", supra note 24 at 416-20.
80. Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 at 283, para. 3, and 285, para. 8.
81. See also M. Spinedi, "From One Codification to Another: Bilateralism and Multilateralism in the Genesis of the Law of Treaties and the Law of State Responsibility" (2002) 13:5 E. J. I. L. 1099;
82. G. Abi-Saab, "The Uses of Article 19" (1999) 10:2 E. J. I. L. 339 at 350.
83. See Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 at 281, para. (7) (Commentary to Part Two, Chapter III)
84. and the Third Report of James Crawford, supra note 31, at 7, para. 374.
85. L.-A. Sicilianos, "The Classification of Obligations and the Multilateral Dimension of the Relations of International Responsibility" (2002) 13 (5) E. J. I. L. 1127 at 1137.
86. See Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 at 281, para. (7) (Commentary to Article 48)
87. and the Third Report of James Crawford, supra note 31 at 49, para. 106 (a).
88. See Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, [2004] I. C. J. Rep. 136 at 200, para. 159, accessible online at (date accessed: 29 May 2005) [Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall].
89. See D. Alland, Justice privée et ordre juridique international. Étude théorique des contre-mesures en droit international public (Paris: Pédone, 1994) at para. 290.
90. See E. Wyler, "From 'State Crime' to Responsibility for 'Serious Breaches of Obligations under Peremptory Norms of General International Law'" (2002) 13:2 E. J. I. L. 1147 at 1151-54;
91. and also A. Pellet, "Le nouveau projet de la C. D. I. sur la responsabilité de l'Etat pour fait internationalement illicite: 'requiem' pour le crime?" in L. Chand Vohrah, ed., Man's Inhumanity to Man: Essays on International Law in Honour of Antonio Cassese (The Hague: Kluwer, 2003) at 655.
92. See Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 at 283-84.
93. See D. Shelton, "Righting Wrongs: Reparations in the Articles on State Responsibility" (2002) 96:4 A. J. I. L. 833 at 841-44.
94. See B. Simma, "From Bilateralism to Community Interest in International Law" (1994-VI) 250 Rec. des Cours 234 at 314
95. and from the same author, "International Crimes: Injury and Countermeasures. Comments on Part 2 of the ILC Work on State Responsibility", in A. Cassese, J. H. H. Weiler, and M. Spinedi, eds., International Crimes of State. A Critical Analysis of the ILC's Draft Article 19 on State Responsibility (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1989) at 299.
96. See on this last point First Report on State Responsibility by Mr. James Crawford, Special Rapporteur, UN Doc. ILC, 50th Sess., UN Doc. A/CN.4/490/Add.2 (1998) at para. 43, 61;
97. C. Annacker, "The Legal Regime of Erga Omnes Obligations in International Law" (1993-4) 46 Austrian J. Pub. & Int'l L. 131 at 148, 157.
98. For an analysis of the "threshold of gravity", see J. Salmon, "Les obligations quantitatives et l'illicéité", in L. Boisson de Chazournes and V. Gowlland-Debbas, eds., The International Legal System in Quest of Equity and Universality/L'Ordre juridique international, un système en quête d'équité et d'universalité, Liber Amicorum Georges Abi-Saab (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2002) at 311 ff.
99. See Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 at 285, para. 7 [emphasis added].
100. See Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1976, vol. 2, Part 2, New York, 1976, 118 at 119-20.
101. See also G. Gaja, "Should All References to International Crimes Disappear from the ILC Draft Articles on State Responsibility?" (1999) 10:2 E. J. I. L. 365 at 367;
102. See Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 at 282, para. (1).
103. See Fifth Report of Roberto Ago, supra note 5 at 53, para. 150
104. and the Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1976, vol. 2, Part 2, New York, 1976, at 110, para. 34 and 120, paras. 70-71.
105. See on this point Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 at 285, para. 8.
106. The suitability of countermeasures as preventive measures that ought to be conceived as instrumental appears to have been emphasized by the ICJ in its valuable discussion in the Case Concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v. Slovakia), [1997] ICJ. Rep. 7 at para. 87.
107. See on this point, G. M. Abi-Saab, "De la Sanction en Droit International: Essai de Clarification", in J. Makarczyk, Theory of International Law at the Threshold of the Twenty-First Century: Essays in Honour of Krzysztof Skubiszewski (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1991) at 67-70;
108. P.-M. Dupuy, "The International Law of State Responsibility: Revolution or Evolution?" (1989) 11 Mich. J. Int'l L. 96;
109. O. Schachter, "International Law in Theory and Practice. General Course of Public International Law" 178 (1982) Rec. des Cours 9 at 182-84;
110. M. Spinedi, "International Crimes of State: The Legislative History", in Cassese, Weiler, and Spinedi, supra note 46 at 71-77.
111. See generally A. J. Kuperman, The Limits of Humanitarian Intervention: Genocide in Rwanda (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2001).
112. Fourth Report on State Responsibility by Mr. James Crawford, Special Rapporteur, UN Doc. ILC, 53rd Sess., UN Doc. A/CN.4/517 (2001) at 27-28, paras. 71-73 [Fourth Report of fames Crawford].
113. See Fourth Report on the Content, Forms and Degrees of International Responsibility (Part 2 of the Draft Articles), by Mr. Willem Riphagen, Special Rapporteur, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER. A/1982/Add.1
114. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1983, vol. 2, Part 1, NewYork, 1982 at 11, para. 60 [Fourth Report of Willem Riphagen].
115. Case Concerning East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgement of 30 June 1995, [1995] I. C. J. Rep. 90 [East Timor cuse].
116. For a view that considers the UN to be the sole recipient of erga omnes rights of protection, see A. J. J. De Hoogh, "The Relationship between Jus Cogens, Obligations Erga Omnes and International Crimes: Peremptory Norms in Perspective" (1991) 42 Austrian J. Pub. & Int'l L. 183 at 208-11.
117. P. D. Coffman, "Obligations Erga Omnes and the Absent Third State" (1996) 39 Germ. Y. B. Int'l L. 285 at 306-7, 314-15.
118. See Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South-West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276(1970), Advisory Opinion, [1971] I. C. J. Rep. 16 at 56 [Namibia case].
119. Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall, supra note 42 at 199, paras. 155-57.
120. Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 12 August 1949, 6 U. S. T. 3516
121. U. N. T. S. 287 [Fourth Geneva Convention].
122. Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall, supra note 42 at 200, para. 159.
123. See N. H. Jorgensen, The Responsibility of States for International Crimes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) at 137, 213, and 218.
124. See P. C. Jessup, A Modern Law of Nations: An Introduction (New York: MacMillan, 1948) at 170.
125. See also G. Gaja, "Obligations Erga Omnes, International Crimes and Jus Cogens: A Tentative Analysis of Three Related Concepts", in Weiler, Cassese, and Spinedi, supra note 46 at 273-74, and particularly footnote 17.
126. During the debates that preceded the adoption of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969, 1155 U. N. T. S. 331, Georg Schwarzenberger had invoked the idea that the enforcement of peremptory norms in the legal order was not realistic since international society was deprived of a supranational authority that could sanction them.
127. See G. Schwarzenberger, "International Jus Cogens?" (1965) 43 Tex. L. Rev. 455 at 467-69.
128. C. Gray, Judicial Remedies in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987) at 212-15;
129. Gaja, "Obligations Erga Omnes, International Crimes and Jus Cogens", supra note 67 at 273.
130. T. J. Farer, "An Inquiry into the Legitimacy of Humanitarian Intervention", in L. Fisler-Damrosch and D. J. Scheffer, Law and Force in the New International Order (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991) at 192;
131. A. Cassese, "La Communauté Internationale et le Génocide", in D. Bardonnet et al., eds., Le droit international au service de la paix, de la justice et du développement. Mélanges Michel Virally (Paris: Pédone, 1991) at 187-92.
132. D. N. Hutchinson, "Solidarity and Breaches of Multilateral Treaties" (1988) Brit. YB. Int'l L. 151 at 202 (quoting Bruno Simma for the term "a sort of international vigilantism."
133. See Simma, "International Crimes: Injury and Countermeasures", supra note 46 at 299).
134. See Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 at 355;
135. and D. J. Bederman, "Counterintuiting Countermeasures" (2002) 96:4 A. J. I. L. 817 at 827-28.
136. For a sharp critique, see, for example, P. Allott, "State Responsibility and the Unmaking of International Law" (1988) 29 Harv. J. Int'l L. 1.
137. See J. Crawford, "Responsibility to the International Community as a Whole" (2001) 8 Ind. J. Global Legal Studies 303 at 320-21.
138. Seventh Report on State Responsibility, by Mr. Gaetano Arangio Ruiz, Special Rapporteur, UN Doc. A/CN.4/469 and Add. 1 and 2
139. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1995, vol. 2, Part 1, New York, 1995 at 46 ff, paras. 245 ff [Seventh Report of Gaetano Arangio-Ruiz].
140. For a critique of these proposals for their obvious political unrealism, see P.-M. Dupuy, "Implications of the Institutionalization of International Crimes of States", in Weiler, Cassese, and Spinedi, supra note 46 at 182.
141. The text of this article is reproduced in the Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1995, supra note 72 at 46, note 117.
142. On the circumstances of the discarding of this part of the draft by the ILC, see A. Pellet, "Can a State Commit a Crime? Definitely, Yes!" (1999) 10 E. J. I. L. 425 at 429
143. and P. Klein, "Responsibility for Serious Breaches of Obligations Deriving from Peremptory Norms of International Law and United Nations Law" (2002) 13:5 E. J. I. L. 1241 at 1252-53.
144. See also S. M. Villalpando, L'émergence de la communauté internationale dans la responsabilité des Etats (Paris: P. U. F., 2005) 31415-50.
145. See Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Thirty-Seventh Session, UN Doc. A/40/10
146. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1985, vol. 2, Part I, Article 14(3), New York, 1986, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER. A/1985/Add.1 (Part 1) [Report on Thirty-Seventh Session].
147. See Simma, "International Crimes: Injury and Countermeasures", supra note 46 at 305, 315 respectively.
148. Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 at 286-87.
149. Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Fifty-Second Session, UN GAOR, 55th Sess., Supp. No. 10, UN Doc. A/55/10 (2000) at 112-113, paras. 366-68, 116, para. 381.
150. Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 at 287, para 2.
151. See Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Forty-Eighth Session, UN GAOR, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 10, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER. A/1996/Add. 1 (Part 2)
152. reproduced in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1996, vol. 2, Part. 2, New York, 1996 at 71, para. 4 [Report on Forty-Eighth Session].
153. Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 [emphasis added].
154. See also P.-M. Dupuy, "The Place and Role of Unilateralism in Contemporary International Law" (2000) 11 (1) E. J. I. L. 19 at 24-25.
155. See A. Gattini, "A Return Ticket to 'Communitarisme.' Please" (2002) 13:5 Eur. J. Int'l. L. 1181 at 1187.
156. See Report on Forty-Eighth Session, supra note 83 at 170.
157. See Report on Thirty-Seventh Session, supra note 78 at 14, para. g.
158. See Report on Fifty-Third Session, supra note 33 at 287, para. 3.
159. M. Koskenniemi, "Solidarity Measures: State Responsibility as a New International Order?" (2002) 71 Brit. Y. B. Int'l L. 337 at 349-50, 355.
160. See also J. I. Charney, "Third States Remedies in International law" (1989) 10 Mich. J. Int'l L. 57 at 101 (noting that "a substantial expansion of international law remedies to give third states a significant role... might erode, rather than enhance, obedience to the rule of law", and suggesting that third-state remedies under customary international law "may be appropriate in the case of a few subjects of international law under limited circumstances").
161. See B. Simma and D. Pulkowski, "Leges Speciales and Self-Contained Regimes", in J. Crawford and A. Pellet, Le droit de la responsabilité des Etats (Paris: Pédone, 2005).
162. Simma, "Bilateralism and Community Interest", supra note 46 at 267-68.
163. See also D. Sarooshi, The United Nations and the Development of Collective Security: The Delegation by the UN Security Council of Its Chapter VII Powers (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999) at 12-13, 153-63
164. and, more specifically, B. Simma, "Does the UN Charter Provide an Adequate Basis for Individual or Collective Responses to Violations of Obligations Erga Omnes?" in J. Delbrück, ed., The Future of International Law Enforcement, New Scenarios-New Law? (Berlin: Duncker and Humblot, 1993) at 139;
165. N. Blokker, "Is the Authorization Authorized? Powers and Practice of the UN Security Council to Authorize the Use of Force by 'Coalitions of the Able and Willing'" (2000) 11 (3) E. J. I. L. 541.
166. H. Kelsen, Principles of International Law (New York: Rinehart, 1952) at 25;
167. J. A. Frowein, "Collective Enforcement of International Obligations" (1987) 47 ZaöRV 67 at 76-77;
168. J. Delbrück, "The Impact of the Allocation of International Law Enforcement Authority on the International Legal Order", in J. Delbrück, ed., Allocation of Law Enforcement Authority in the International System: Proceedings of an International Symposium of the Kiel Institute of International Law, March 25 to 25, 1994 (Berlin: Duncker and Humblot, 1995) at 135, 154.
169. Frowein, "Reactions by Not Directly Affected States", supra note 24 at 423, 431-33.
170. See M. Byers, Custom, Power and the Power of Rules: International Relations and Customary International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) at 197 [emphasis added].
171. C. Tomuschat, "International Crimes by States: An Endangered Species", in K. Wellens, ed., International Law: Theory and Practice, Essays in Honour of Eric Suy (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1998) at 265.
172. V. Gowlland-Debbas, "The Limits of Unilateral Enforcement of Community Objectives in the Framework of United Nations Peace Maintenance" (2000) 11 (1) E. J. I. L. 361 at 385-86.
173. See on this point the Third Report of fames Crawford, supra note 31 at 17-18, para. 396.
174. See in this sense P.-M. Dupuy, "A General Stocktaking of the Connections between the Multilateral Dimension of Obligations and Codification of the Law of State Responsibility" (2002) 13 (5) E. J. I. L. 1053 at 1078;
175. Simma, "Bilateralism and Community Interest", supra note 46 at 249.
176. H. Mosler, "The International Society as a Legal Community" (1974) 140 Rec. des Cours 1 at 32;
177. M. Virally, "Panorama du droit international contemporain. Cours général de droit international public" (1983-V) 183 Rec. des Cours 1 at 28.
178. R.-J. Dupuy, "Communauté internationale et disparités de développment" (1979) 165 Rec. des Cours 9 at 220.
179. See Second Report on State Responsibility, by Mr. Roberto Ago, Special Rapporteur, UN Doc. A/CN.4/233
180. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 197o, vol. 2, Part 1, New York, 1970 at 184 (UN Doc. A/8010/Rev. 1 (A/25/10)) [emphasis added].
181. See R. Ago, "Obligations Erga Omnes and the International Community", in Weiler, Cassese, and Spinedi, supra note 46 at 238 [emphasis added];
182. For a comprehensive discussion of Ago's ideas on this point, see Spinedi, "From One Codification to Another", supra note 37 at 1115-19.
183. See Third Report of James Crawford, supra note 31 at 37-38, 40, para. 85.
184. United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff at Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), [1980] I. C. J. Rep. 3 at 43.
185. C. de Visscher, "Positivisme et "Jus Cogens" (1971) 75 Rev. D. I. P. 5 at 8.
186. Fourth Report of James Crawford, supra note 56 at 13, para. 37;
187. P. Weil, "Le droit international en quête de son identité: Cours général de droit international public" (1992-VI) 237 Rec. des Cours 9 at 308-11;
188. Namibia case, supra note 61 at 241, para. 33 (dissenting opinion of Fitzmaurice J.).
189. Case Concerning the Legality of the Threat and Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, [1996-I] I. C. J. Rep. 3 at 270 (para, 12), 271 (para. 13).
190. Simma, "Bilateralism and Community Interest", supra note 46 at 235-37.
191. See also S. Rosenne, "Bilateralism and Community Interest in the Codified Law of Treaties", in W. Friedmann, L. Henkin, and O. Lissitzyn, eds., Transnational Law in a Changing Society: Essays in Honor of Philip C. Jessup (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972) at 208.
192. Simma, "Bilateralism and Community Interest", supra note 46 at 256 ff.
193. See also B. Graefrath, "On the Reaction of the "International Community as a Whole": A Perspective of Survival", in Weiler, Cassese, and Spinedi, supra note 46 at 253-55.
194. G. M. Abi-Saab, "Cours Général de Droit International Public" (1987-VII) 207 Rec. des Cours 15 at 93;
195. R. Ago, "Obligations Erga Omnes and the International Community", supra note 106 at 238;
196. Simma, "Bilateralism and Community" in Dinstein and Tabory, supra note 15 at 844.
197. R. Provost, "Reciprocity in Human Rights and Humanitarian Law" (1994) 65 Brit. Y. B. Int'l L. 384 at 384-85;
198. Simma, "Bilateralism and Community Interest", supra note 46 at 244;
199. On this point, see G. M. Abi-Saab, ""La communauté internationale" saisie par le droit - Essai de radioscopie juridique", in G. M. Abi-Saab et al., eds., Boutros Boutros-Ghali, amicorum discipulorumque liber: paix, développement, démocratie, vol. I (Brussels: Bruylant, 1998) at 106.
200. A. J. J. De Hoogh, Obligations Erga Omnes and International Crimes: A Theoretical Inquiry into the Implementation and Enforcement of the International Responsibility of States (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1996) at 106.
201. See also Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion, [1949] I. CJ. Rep. 174 at 179 [Reparations case].
202. Article 35 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or between International Organizations, UN Doc. A/CONF. 129/15; (1986) 25 I. L. M. 543, stipulates that a treaty obligation arises for a third organization only "if the parties to the treaty intend the provision to be the means of establishing the obligation (on the organization) and the... third organization expressly accepts that obligation in writing." Neither of these conditions seems to be met in the case of Article I of the Genocide Convention.
203. De Hoogh, Obligations Erga Omnes and International Crimes, supra note 117 at 111.
204. See the letter dated 13 July 1992 from the permanent representative of Bosnia-Herzegovina to the Security Council, UN SCOR, UN Doc. S/24266 (1992)
205. cited in N. M. Procida, "Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia-Herzegovina, A Case Study: Employing United Nations Mechanisms to Enforce the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide" (1995) 18 Suffolk Transnat'l L. Rev. 655 at 675.
206. See M. Toufayan, "Deployment of Troops to Prevent Impending Genocide: A Contemporary Assessment of the UN Security Council's Powers" (2002) 40 Can Y. B. Int'l L. 195 at 220-21.
207. De Hoogh, Obligations Erga Omnes and International Crimes, supra note 117 at 111-12.
208. See also Reparations case, supra note 118 at 178-80.
209. See generally F. L. Kirgis, "The Security Council's First Fifty Years" (1995) 89 A. J. I. L. 506.
210. De Hoogh, Obligations Erga Omnes and International Crimes, supra note 117 at 119-22.
211. M. Lachs, "Quelques réflexions sur la communauté internationale", in D. Bardonnet et al., Le droit international au service de la paix, de la justice et du développement, supra note 69 at 352.
212. See G. Gaja, "Réflexions sur le Rôle du Conseil de Sécurité dans le Nouvel Ordre Mondial: A propos des Rapports entre Maintien de la Paix et Crimes Internationaux des États" (1993) 97 Rev. D. I. P. 297 at 313.
213. See also P.-M. Dupuy, "Après la Guerre du Golfe..." (1991) 95 Rev. D. I. P. 621 at 635 (describing the involvement of the Security Council in the implementation of Iraqi responsibility in the aftermath of the Gulf war as that of the "organized international community").
214. For a specific reference to the "organized international community" in the jurisprudence of the ICJ and the work of the ILC, see respectively South West African cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, [1966] I. C. J. Rep. 6 at 467 (dissenting opinion of Judge Padilla Nervo);
215. Third Report on the Content, Forms and Degrees of International Responsibility (Part 2 of the Draft Articles), by Mr. Willem Riphagen, Special Rapporteur, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER. A/1982/Add.1
216. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1982, vol. 2, Part 1, New York, 1983 at 48 and 49, paras. 5 and 14 [Third Report of Willem Riphagen].
217. See H. Waldock, "General Course on Public International Law" (1962) 106 Rec. des Cours 1 at 19.
218. For academic support for this view, see T. M. Franck, "Is the U. N. Charter a Constitution?" in J. A. Frowein, K. Scharioth, I. Winkelmann, and R. Wolfrum, eds., Negotiating for Peace: Liber Amicorum Tono Eitel (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2003) at 95;
219. R. St-J. MacDonald, "Fundamental Norms in Contemporary International Law" (1987) 25 Can. Y. B. Int'l L. 115 at 119 ff;
220. Simma, "Bilateralism and Community Interest", supra note 46 at 260;
221. H. Kelsen, The Law of the United Nations: A Critical Analysis of Its Fundamental Problems (London: Stevens and Sons, 1951) at 106-10;
222. A. Verdross and B. Simma, Universelles Volkerrecht. Theorie und Praxis, 3rd ed. (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1984;
223. A. Ross, Constitution of the United Nations (New York: Rinehart, 1950);
224. H. M. Kindred et al., eds., International Law: Chiefly as Interpreted and Applied in Canada, 6th ed. (Toronto: Emond Montgomery, 2000) at 19, para 9;
225. B. Fassbender, "The United Nations Charter as Constitution of the International Community" (1998) 36 Colum. J. Transn'l L. 529;
226. N. Onuf, "The Constitution of International Society" (1994) 5 E. J. I. L. 1 at 16-17.
227. For an assessment of the contributions of the ICJ to the interpretation of the UN Charter as a constitutional order, see C. de Visscher, Problèmes d'interprétation judiciaire en droit international public (Paris: Pédone, 1963) at 140 ff.
228. Simma, "Bilateralism and Community Interest", supra note 46 at 235-37.
229. See Case Concerning the Arbitral Award of 31 July 1989 (Guinea-Bissau v. Senegal), [1975] I. C. J. Rep. 53 at 121, para. 5 (dissenting opinion of Judges Aguilar Mawdsley and Ranjeva);
230. See also East Timor case, supra note 58
231. "Counter-Memorial of Australia", [1995] I. C. J. Pleadings 1 at 97-98, where Australia contended that "East Timor's rights imply a duty on behalf of the international community (i.e. the United Nations) but not on behalf of individual States such as Australia."
232. See also P. Daillet and A. Pellet, Droit International Public, 5th ed. (Paris: L. G. D. J., 1994) at 394
233. P.-M. Dupuy, "Sécurité Collective et Organisation de la Paix" (1993) 97 Rev. D. I. P. 626 at 671.
234. This language is borrowed from the Corfu Channel case (United Kingdom v. Albania), [1949] I. C. J. Rep. 4 at 24.
235. See G. Scelle, Précis de droit des gens: Principes et systématiques (Paris: Sirey, 1934) at 7.
236. For a defense of the constitutional nature of the obligation to "respect and ensure respect" for humanitarian law, see L. Condorelli and L. Boisson de Chazournes, "Common Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions Revisited: Protecting Collective Interests" 837 Int'l Rev. Red Cross (31 March 2000) 67 at 69.
237. V. Starace, "La responsabilité résultant de la violation des obligations à l'égard de la communauté internationale" (1976) 153 Rec. des Cours 265 at 289;
238. C. Eagleton, "International Organization and the Law of Responsibility" (1950) 76 Rec. des Cours 319 at 323, 401, 423.
239. See namely Gaja, "Réflexions sur le role du Conseil de Sécurité", supra note 129 at 314 ff;
240. O. Schachter, "United Nations Law in the Gulf Conflict" (1991) 85 A. J. I. L. 452;
241. and R-M. Dupuy, "Le Maintien de la Paix", in R. J. Dupuy, ed., A Handbook on International Organizations, 1st ed., (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1998) at 593-98.
242. The elements of clear intention, publicity, and authority to make a statement, derived from the Nuclear Tests cases (Australia v. France; New Zealand v. France), Judgment of 20 December 1974 - Merits, [1974] I. C. J. Rep. 252 at 269-70, para. 43-51, in the case of unilateral declarations of states, constitute the preliminary requirements necessary to bind the organization legally by declarations made by its organs.
243. See also on this point M. Virally, "Unilateral Acts of International Organizations", in M. Bedjaoui, ed., International Law: Achievement and Prospects (Paris: UNESCO, 1991), 241 at 256-57;
244. M. Hirsch, The Responsibility of International Organizations towards ThirdParties (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1995) at 38.
245. See K. Annan, Statement on Receiving the Report of the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the United Nations during the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda, 16 December 1999, at 1, available online at (date accessed: 18 April 2004) [emphasis added].
246. See, in particular, S. I. Skogly, The Human Rights Obligations of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (London: Cavendish Publishing Limited, 2001), Chapters 4, 5, and 7;
247. E. David, Droit des organisations internationales (Brussels: Bruylant, 1997) at 20-25;
248. H. Schermers, International Institutional Law (The Hague: Sitjoff and Noordhoff, 1980) at 657.
249. See Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Thirty-Fourth Session (Question of Treaties Concluded between States and International Organizations or between Two or More International Organizations), UN Doc. A/CN.4/L.341
250. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1982, vol. 2, Part 2, at 56, para. 3 (commentary on Article 53), New York, 1982 (UN Doc. A/37/10 (1982));
251. E. David, "Le droit international applicable aux organisations internationales", in M. Dony, ed., Mélanges en hommage à Michel Waelbroech (Brussels: Bruylant, 1999) at 3;
252. F. Morgenstern, Legal Problems of International Organizations (Cambridge: Grotius, 1986) at 32-36;
253. G. Cahin, La coutume internationale et les organisations internationales: L'incidence de la dimension institutionnelle sur le processus coutumier (Paris: Pédone, 2001) at 512-37;
254. M. Virally, "L'O. N. U. devant le droit" (1972) 99 J. Dr. Int'l. 501;
255. C. Scott et al, "A Memorial for Bosnia: Framework of Legal Arguments Concerning the Lawfulness of the Maintenance of the United Nations Security Council's Arms Embargo on Bosnia and Herzegovina" (1994) 16 Mich. J. Int'l L. 1 at 112.
256. G. Tunkin, "The Legal Bases of International Organization Action", in R. J. Dupuy, ed., A Handbook on International Organizations, 1st ed. (Hague Academy of Internationa] Law, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1988) at 261-62;
257. De Hoogh, Obligations Erga Omnes and International Crimes, supra note 117 at 98, 104, 112.
258. Namibia case, supra note 61 at 264 (dissenting opinion of Judge Fitzmaurice);
259. Reparations case, supra note 118 at 177;
260. B. Martenczuk, "The Security Council, the International Court and Judicial Review: What Lessons from Lockerbie?" (1999) 10 E. J. I. L. 517 at 546.
261. See in this sense, Case Concerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovinay. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)) (Request for the indication of additional provisional measures), Order of 13 September 1993, [1993] ICJ. Rep. 325 at 440, para. 100 (separate opinion of ad hocJudge Lauterpacht).
262. and G. Jaenicke, "International Public Order", in R. Bernhardt et al, eds., Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Max Planck Institute of International Law (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1987) at 314-18.
263. For comparable language, see H. L. A. Hart, The Concept of Law (Oxford: Clarendon, 1961) at 187-89 (on the minimum content of natural law).
264. In Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic (Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction), 2 October 1995, Case no. IT-94-1-AR72
265. reprinted in (1996) 35 I. L. M. 32 at para. 93, the Appeals Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia thus held that Article 1 of the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 is a principle that "lays down an obligation that is incumbent, not only on States, but also on other international entities including the United Nations."
266. M. H. Arsanjani, "Claims against International Organizations: Quis custodiet impsos custodes" (1981) 7 Yale. J. World Pub. Ord. 131 at 134.
267. See also H. Schermers and N. Blokker, International Institutional Law: Unity within Diversity, 3rd ed. (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1995) at 988.
268. On such effects of human rights treaties, see, in particular, R. Higgins, Problems and Process: International Law and How We Use It (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994) at 20-22;
269. M. S. McDougal and H. D. Lasswell, Jurisprudence for a Free Society: Studies in Law, Science and Policy (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1992) at 163-64.
270. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, UN Doc. A/CONF.183/g, 37 I. L. M. 999, Articles 13 and 16.
271. See the commentaries of the United Nations Secretariat on Article XII of the draft Genocide Convention (old Article VIII), UN ESCOR, UN Doc. E/447 (1947) at 45-46.
272. See also P. Akhavan, "Justice in the Hague, Peace in the Former Yugoslavia?" (1999) 149 Hum. Rts. Q. 737 at 743-51;
273. D. Wippman, "Atrocities, Deterrence, and the Limits of International Justice" (1999) 23 (2) Fordham Int'l L. J. 473 at 476-88;
274. T. Meron, "From Nuremberg to The Hague" (1995) 149 Mil. L. Rev. 107 at 110-11.
275. B. Fassbender, UN Security Council Reform and the Right of Veto: A Constitutional Perspective (Legal Aspects of International Organization, vol. 32) (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1998) at 221-77;
276. D. Caron, "The Legitimacy of the Collective Authority of the Security Council" (1993) 87 A. J. I. L. 552 at 562-88.
277. M. Singer, "Jurisdictional Immunity of International Organizations: Human Rights and Functional Necessity Concerns" (1995-6) 36 Va. J. Int'l. L. 53 at go;
278. See also the recent decisions of the European Court of Human Rights in Matthews v. The United Kingdom, Judgment (Merits), 18 February 1999, Application no. 24833/94 at para. 32
279. and Beer and Regan v. Germany, Judgment (Merits), 18 February 1999, Application no. 00028934/95 at para. 57.
280. Frowein, "Reactions By Not Directly Affected States", supra note 24 at 423.
281. See also Sir I. Sinclair, "State Crimes Implementation Problems: Who Reacts?" in Weiler, Cassese, and Spinedi, supra note 46 at 257;
282. G. Gaja, "Ius Cogens beyond the Vienna Convention" (1981-III) 172 Rec. des Cours 280 at 299-301;
283. B. Graefrath, "International Crimes - A Specific Regime of International Responsibility of States and Its Legal Consequences", in Weiler, Cassese, and Spinedi, supra note 46 at 161.
284. It is to be recalled that pursuant to Article 89 of Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, 1125 U. N. T. S. 3, the high contracting parties have undertaken to act, jointly and separately, in co-operation with the United Nations in certain circumstances, namely when and wherever "serious violations" of international humanitarian law occur.
285. See Eighth Report on State Responsibility, by Mr. Roberto Ago, Special Rapporteur ("Content of the Obligation Breached"), UN Doc. A/CN.4/291 and Add. 1 and 2
286. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1979, vol. 2, Part I, New York, 1976 at 43, para. 91.
287. See also the debate that took place within the ILC in Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Twenty-Eighth Session, 3 May to 23 July 1976, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER. A/1976 (77. V.4)
288. reprinted in Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1979, vol. 2, Part 1, New York, 1976 at 55-91, 239-53;
289. the Third Report of Willem Riphagen, supra note 129 at 48, paras. (4) and (14);
290. and the Seventh Report (by) of Gaetano Arangio-Ruiz, supra note 72.
291. See also in this sense P.-M. Dupuy, "Quarante ans de codification du droit de la responsabilité des États. Un bilan" (2003) 107 (3) Rev. D. I. P. 305 at 341-42;
292. B. Graefrath, "International Crimes and Collective Security", in Wellens, supra note 97 at 240.
293. See, inter alia, in this connection Riphagen's questions in Fourth Report of Willem Riphagen, supra note 57 at 31 and 32, para. 64.
294. Case Concerning the Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion, [1980] I. C. J. Rep. 73 at 111 (separate opinion of Judge Lachs).
295. See also Higgins, Problems and Process, supra note 148 at 46;
296. F. Capotorti, "Cours General de Droit International Public" (1994-IV) 248 Rec. des Cours 10 at 60;
297. M. Lachs, "General Course in Public International Law" (1980) 169 Rec. des Cours 9 at 141;
298. I. Seidl-Hohenveldern, Corporations in and under International Law (Cambridge: Grotius, 1988) at 72.
299. M. Rama-Montaldo, "International Legal Personality and Implied Powers of International Organizations" (1970) 44 Brit. Y. B. Int'l L. 111 at 146;
300. See also P. Cahier, "Le droit interne des organisations internationales" (1963) 67 Rev. D. I. P. 575;
301. P. Reuter, "Principes de droit international public" (1961) 103 Rec. des Cours 425 at 516-17.
302. Simma, "Bilateralism and Community Interest", supra note 46 at 312-13.
303. H. Freudenschu, "Article 39 of the UN Charter Revisited: Threats to the Peace and the Recent Practice of the UN Security Council" (1993) 46 Austrian J. Pub. & Int'l L. 1 at 39.
304. (date accessed: 7 October 2003).
305. For a critique on the illegitimacy of the Security Council in cases where the responsibility of states is called into question, see V. Gowlland-Debbas, "Security Council Enforcement and Issues of State Responsibility" (1994) 43 I. C. L. Q. 55 at 71.
306. More Secure World, supra note 7 at paras. 248-49 and 256.
307. A. Roberts and B. Kingsbury, "Introduction: The UN's Roles in International Society since 1945", in A. Roberts and B. Kingsbury, eds., United Nations, Divided World: The U. N. 's Roles in International Relations, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) at 45.
308. The constant struggle of international organizations to strike a balance between obsessive concerns with internal institutional problems and exclusive concentration upon substantive issues of current world politics is well illustrated by Inis Claude Jr. in his famous book Swords into Plowshares: The Problem and Progress of International Organization, 4th ed. (New York: Random House, 1984) at 6 ff.
309. See É. David, "Aspects juridiques de la responsabilité des différents acteurs dans les evénements du Rwanda (Avril-Juillet 1994)", in K. Boustany and D. Dormoy, eds., Génocide (s) (Brussels: Bruylant, 1999) at 403, and particularly at 430-35, 440.
310. W. M. Reisman, "Responses to Crimes of Discrimination and Genocide: An Appraisal of the Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination" (1971) 1 Den. J Int'l L. & Pol'y 28 at 64.