Yellow fever crusade: US colonialism, tropical medicine, and the international politics of mosquito control, 1900-1920

Medicine at the Border: Disease, Globalization and Security, 1850 to the Present

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 41-59

  Stern, Alexandra Minna ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85008426351     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1057/9780230288904     Document Type: Chapter

References (58)

1. M. Cueto, 'The Cycles of Eradication: the Rockefeller Foundation and Latin American Public Health, 1918-1940', in P. Weindling (ed.) International health organizations and movements, 1918-1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 222-43.
2. For a superb discussion of this phenomenon see R. Salvatore, 'The Enterprise of Knowledge: Representational Machines of Informal Empire', in G.M. Joseph, C.C. LeGrand and R.D. Salvatore (eds), Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Cultural History of US-Latin America Relations (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998), pp. 69-106.
3. See, for example J. Farley, Bilharzia: A History of Imperial Tropical Medicine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991)
4. M. Worboys, 'Tropical Diseases', in W.F. Bynum and R. Porter (eds), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, vol. 1 (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 512-36
5. D. Arnold, 'Medicine and Colonialism', in Bynum and Porter (eds), Companion Encyclopedia, pp. 1393-416
6. A. Bashford, Imperial Hygiene: A Critical History of Colonialism, Nationalism and Public Health (London: Palgrave, 2004).
7. See W. Anderson, 'Immunities of Empire: Race, Disease, and the New Tropical Medicine, 1900-1920', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 70 (1996): 94-118
8. A. Spielman and M. D'Antonio, Mosquito: The Story of Man's Deadliest Foe (New York: Hyperion, 2001).
9. See M.D. Gorgas and B.J. Hendrick, William Crawford Gorgas: His Life and Work (New York: Doubleday, 1924).
10. US Surgeon General to W.C. Gorgas, 21 December 1898, Folder '1898, November-December', Box 2, William C. Gorgas Papers, Ac. 2,409, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
11. See J. Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana- Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
12. M. Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992)
13. J.H. Ellis, Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1992).
14. See N. Stepan, 'The Interplay between Socio-Economic Factors and Medical Science: Yellow Fever Research, Cuba and the United States', Social Studies of Science, 8 (1978): 397-423
15. for an excellent account of the Reed Commission experts see A.E. Truby, Memoir of Walter Reed: The Yellow Fever Episode (New York: Paul B. Hoeber, 1943).
16. See the articles: W. Reed, J. Carroll, A. Agramonte and J. Lazear, 'The Etiology of Yellow Fever - A Preliminary Note', Proceedings of the Twenty-eighth Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association in Indianapolis, 22-26 October 1900
17. W. Reed, J. Carroll and A. Agramonte, 'The Etiology of Yellow Fever: An Additional Note', Proceedings of the Pan-American Medical Congress in Havana, 4-7 February 1901
18. W. Reed, J. Carroll and A. Agramonte, 'Experimental Yellow Fever', American Medicine, 6 July 1901: 15-23
19. W. Reed and J. Carroll, 'The Etiology of Yellow Fever: A Supplemental Note', American Medicine, 22 February 1902, pp. 301-5
20. on French colonial medicine and yellow fever research in Brazil see I. Löwy, 'Yellow Fever in Rio de Janeiro and the Pasteur Institute Mission (1901-1905): the Transfer of Science to the Periphery', Medical History, 34 (1990): 144-63.
21. See D.M. Haynes, Imperial Medicine: Patrick Manson and the Conquest of Tropical Disease (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001).
22. D. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914 (New York: Simon & Shuster, 1977), p. 418.
23. Walter C. Reed to William Crawford Gorgas, June 5, 1901
24. Walter A.C. Reed Papers, MS C 48, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland.
25. See N.L. Stepan, Picturing Tropical Nature (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001).
26. W.C. Gorgas, 'Sanitation on the Canal Zone', Journal of the American Medical Association, 60 (29 March 1913): 954.
27. See M.L. Conniff, Panama and the United States: The Forced Alliance (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992)
28. J. Lindsay-Poland, Emperors in the Jungle: The Hidden History of the US in Panama (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003).
29. M.L. Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal, Panama, 1904-1981 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985)
30. P. Sutter, '"Pulling the Teeth of the Tropics": Environment, Disease, Race, and the US Sanitary Program in Panama, 1904-1914', unpublished manuscript in author's possession.
31. Quoted in J.A. LePrince and A.J. Orenstein, Mosquito Control in Panama: The Eradication of Malaria and Yellow Fever in Cuba and Panama (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1916), p. 272.
32. W.C. Gorgas, Sanitation in Panama (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1915), p. 147.
33. 'Report of the Department of Health of the Isthmian Canal Commission for the Month of September 1906' (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1906), p. 3.
34. See 'Report of the Department of Health of the Isthmian Canal Commission for the month of January 1906' (Washington, D.: Government Printing Office, 1906).
35. W.C. Gorgas, 'Annual Report of the Department of Health of the Isthmian Canal Commission for the Year 1906' (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1907).
36. W.C. Gorgas, 'Recent Experiences of the United States Army with Regard to Sanitation of Yellow Fever in the Tropics', Journal of Tropical Medicine, (February 1903): 49-52.
37. H.R. Carter, 'Notes on the Sanitation of Yellow Fever and Malaria, From Isthmian Experience', Medical Record (19 July 1909): 2 (read at the Section of Hygiene, Pan-American Scientific Congress, Santiago, Chile, December, 1908).
38. C.F. Mason, Chief Health Officer, to Governor of the Panama Canal, September 1914, Box 252, 37-F-154, RG 185, ICC, NARA.
39. See W. Anderson, '"Where Every Prospect Pleases and Only Man in Vile": Laboratory Medicine as Colonial Discourse', in V.L. Rafael (ed.), Discrepant Histories: Translocal Essays on Filipino Cultures (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), pp. 83-112
40. W. Anderson, 'Excremental Colonialism: Public Health and the Poetics of Pollution', Critical Inquiry, 21 (1995): 640-69
41. R. Ileto, 'Cholera and the Origins of the American Sanitary Order', in Rafael, Discrepant Histories, pp. 51-81
42. M. Tapper, 'Interrogating Bodies: Medico-Racial Knowledge, Politics, and the Study of a Disease', Comparative Study of Studies in Society and History, 37 (1995): 76-93.
43. Carter, 'Notes on the Sanitation of Yellow Fever and Malaria', p. 12.
44. R. Ross, Mosquito Brigades and How to Organize Them (New York City: Longmans, Green and Co., 1902), p. 50.
45. J.C. Perry, 'Colon', Public Health Reports (4 March 1904): 352.
46. Perry, 'A study of the vital statistics as regards prevailing diseases and mortality, of Colon, Republic of Panama, for the year 1903', Public Health Reports (18 March 1904): 467-75.
47. W.G. Baetz, 'Syphilis in Colored Canal Laborers - A Resume of 500 Consecutive Medical Cases', Proceedings of the Medical Association of the Isthmian Canal Zone, Vol. VII, Part 1 (Mount Hope, C.Z.: Panama Canal Press, 1916), pp. 17-33.
48. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, p. 501; Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal.
49. 'Report of the Department of Health of the Isthmian Canal Commission for the month of March 1909' (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1909), p. 6.
50. For the best discussion of the limits of the eradication model see M. Cueto, 'Sanitation from Above: Yellow Fever and Foreign Intervention in Peru, 1919-1922', Hispanic American Historical Review, 72 (1992): 1-22.
51. L.W. Hackett to W. Rose, 29 August 1914, Folder 127, Box 9, Record Group 5, Series 1, Sub-series 2, Panama (327), Rockefeller Archive Center (RAC), Tarrytown, NY.
52. Rockefeller Foundation (RF), International Health Board (IHB), Annual Report, 1921, p. 133.
53. 'A Sequel to Cuba and Panama', RF, IHB, Annual Report, 1919, p. 11.
54. J. Farley, To Cast out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913-1951) (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 92.
55. W.C. Gorgas, 'Rockefeller Foundation Health Board, Itinerary of Major General William C. Gorgas, Chairman of Yellow Fever Commission to South America, June 14-December 12, 1916', 4 July 1916, Record Group 12, Series 1, Sub-series Dairies, RF, RAC.
56. 'Fighting Mosquitoes with Fish', RF, IHB, Annual Report, 1921, pp. 200-5.
57. Gorgas, Sanitation in the Tropics, 288-9.
58. D.B. Cooper and K.F. Kiple, 'Yellow Fever', in Kiple (ed.), The Cambridge World History of Disease (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 1100-7.