A Theoretical review of cognitive biases and deficits in obsessive–compulsive disorder

Biological Psychology

Volumn 121, Issue , 2016, Pages 221-232

  Hezel, Dianne M ^a   McNally, Richard J ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Attention; Cognitive factors; Dysfunctional thoughts; Memory; Metacognition; Obsessive compulsive disorder

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ATTENTION DISTURBANCE; ATTENTIONAL BIAS; COGNITIVE BIAS; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COGNITIVE THERAPY; HUMAN; MEMORY BIAS; MEMORY DISORDER; METACOGNITION; OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; THEORETICAL STUDY; THERAPY EFFECT; THINKING; ADULT; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; FEMALE; MALE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; PSYCHOLOGY; RECALL; SELF REPORT;

ADULT; ATTENTIONAL BIAS; COGNITION DISORDERS; CULTURE; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MENTAL RECALL; METACOGNITION; OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; SELF REPORT; THINKING;

EID: 85000948503     PISSN: 03010511     EISSN: 18736246     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.10.012     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Abramovitch, A., Abramowitz, J.S., Mittelman, A., The neuropsychology of adult obsessive–compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review 33 (2013), 1163–1171, 10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.004.
2. Abramowitz, J.S., Deacon, B.J., Olatunji, B.O., Wheaton, M.G., Berman, N.C., Losardo, D., Hale, L.R., Assessment of obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions: development and evaluation of the dimensional obsessive–compulsive scale. Psychological Assessment 22 (2010), 180–198, 10.1037/a0018260.
3. Abramowitz, J.S., Khandker, M., Nelson, C.A., Deacon, B.J., Rygwall, R., The role of cognitive factors in the pathogenesis of obsessive–compulsive symptoms: a prospective study. Behaviour Research and Therapy 44 (2006), 1361–1374, 10.1016/j.brat.2005.09.011.
4. Abramowitz, J.S., Lackey, G.R., Wheaton, M.G., Obsessive–compulsive symptoms: the contribution of obsessional beliefs and experiential avoidance. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23 (2009), 160–166, 10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.06.003.
5. Abramowitz, J.S., Taylor, S., McKay, D., Obsessive–compulsive disorder. Lancet 374 (2009), 491–499.
6. Abramowitz, J.S., Whiteside, S., Lynam, D., Kalsy, S., Is thought-action fusion specific to obsessive–compulsive disorder? A mediating role of negative affect. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003), 1069–1079.
7. Admon, R., Bleich-Cohen, M., Weizmant, R., Poyurovsky, M., Faragian, S., Hendler, T., Functional and structural neural indices of risk aversion in obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). Psychiatry Research 203 (2012), 207–213.
8. Amir, N., Freshman, M., Ramsey, B., Neary, E., Brigidi, B., Thought-action fusion in individuals with OCD symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 (2001), 765–776, 10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00056-5 [pii].
9. Amir, N., Najmi, S., Morrison, A.S., Attenuation of attention bias in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 47 (2009), 153–157, 10.1016/j.brat.2008.10.020.
10. APA (Ed.). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC.
11. Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., Van, I.M.H., Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin 133 (2007), 1–24, 10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1.a.
12. Beck, A.T., The evolution of the cognitive model of depression and its neurobiological correlates. American Journal of Psychiatry 165 (2008), 969–977, 10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08050721.
13. Berle, D., Starcevic, V., Thought-action fusion: review of the literature and future directions. Clinical Psychology Review 25 (2005), 263–284, 10.1016/j.cpr.2004.12.001.
14. Boswell, J.F., Thompson-Hollands, J., Farchione, T.J., Barlow, D.H., Intolerance of uncertainty: a common factor in the treatment of emotional disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychology 69 (2013), 630–645.
15. Bouchard, C., Rheaume, J., Ladouceur, R., Responsibility and perfectionism in OCD: an experimental study. Behaviour Research and Therapy 37 (1999), 239–248.
16. Brown, H.D., Kosslyn, S.M., Breiter, H.C., Baer, L., Jenike, M.A., Can patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder discriminate between percepts and mental images—a signal-detection analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103 (1994), 445–454, 10.1037//0021-843x.103.3.445.
17. Buhr, K., Dugas, M.J., The role of fear of anxiety and intolerance of uncertainty in worry: an experimental manipulation. Behaviour Research and Therapy 47 (2009), 215–223.
18. Calamari, J.E., Cohen, R.J., Rector, N.A., Szacun-Shimizu, K., Riemann, B.C., Norberg, M.M., Dysfunctional belief-based obsessive–compulsive disorder subgroups. Behaviour Research and Therapy 44 (2006), 1347–1360, 10.1016/j.brat.2005.10.005.
19. Careau, Y., O'Connor, K., Turgeon, L., Freeston, M., Childhood experiences and adult beliefs in obsessive–compulsive disorder: evaluating a specific etiological model. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 26 (2012), 236–256.
20. Chik, H.M., Calamari, J.E., Rector, N.A., Riemann, B.C., What do low-dysfunctional beliefs obsessive–compulsive disorder subgroups believe?. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 24 (2010), 837–846, 10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.06.006.
21. Christensen, K.J., Kim, S.W., Dysken, M.W., Hoover, K.M., Neuropsychological performance in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Biological Psychiatry 31 (1992), 4–18.
22. Clark, D.A., Purdon, C., Wang, A., The meta-cognitive beliefs questionnaire: development of a measure of obsessional beliefs. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003), 655–669.
23. Cohen, Y., Lachenmeyer, J.R., Springer, C., Anxiety and selective attention in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003), 1311–1323.
24. Coles, M.E., Frost, R.O., Heimberg, R.G., Rheaume, J., Not just right experiences: perfectionism, obsessive–compulsive features and general psychopathology. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003), 681–700.
25. Coles, M.E., Horng, B., A prospective test of cognitive vulnerability to obsessive–compulsive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 30 (2006), 723–734.
26. Coles, M.E., Pietrefesa, A.S., Schoefield, C.A., Cook, L.M., Predicting changes in obsessive–compulsive symptoms over a six-month follow-up: a prospective test of cognitive models of obsessive compulsive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 32 (2008), 657–675.
27. Coles, M.E., Schofield, C.A., Nota, J.A., Initial data on recollections of pathways to inflated responsibility beliefs in patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 43 (2014), 385–395, 10.1017/S1352465813001112.
28. Constans, J.I., Foa, E.B., Franklin, M.E., Mathews, A., Memory for actual and imagined events in OC checkers. Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995), 665–671, 10.1016/0005-7967(94)00095-2.
29. Cougle, J.R., Lee, H.J., Pathological and non-pathological features of obsessive–compulsive disorder: revisiting basic assumptions of cognitive models. Journal of Obsessive–Compulsive and Related Disorders 3 (2014), 12–20.
30. Dar, R., Rish, S., Hermesh, H., Taub, M., Fux, M., Realism of confidence in obsessive–compulsive checkers. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 109 (2000), 673–678.
31. Deckersbach, T., Otto, M.W., Savage, C.R., Baer, L., Jenike, M.A., The relationship between semantic organization and memory in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 69 (2000), 101–107, 10.1159/000012373.
32. Dirson, S., Bouvard, M., Cottraux, J., Martin, R., Visual memory impairment in patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder: a controlled study. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 63 (1995), 22–31.
33. Dugas, M.J., Gosselin, P., Ladouceur, R., Intolerance of uncertainty and worry: investigating specificity in a nonclinical sample. Cognitive Therapy and Research 25 (2001), 551–558.
34. Everaert, J., Koster, E.H., Derakshan, N., The combined cognitive bias hypothesis in depression. Clinical Psychology Review 32 (2012), 413–424, 10.1016/j.cpr.2012.04.003.
35. Everaert, J., Tierens, M., Uzieblo, K., Koster, E.H., The indirect effect of attention bias on memory via interpretation bias: evidence for the combined cognitive bias hypothesis in subclinical depression. Cognition and Emotion 27 (2013), 1450–1459, 10.1080/02699931.2013.787972.
36. Exner, C., Martin, V., Rief, W., Self-focused ruminations and memory deficits in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 33 (2009), 163–174, 10.1007/s10608-007-9162-x.
37. Fisher, P.L., Obsessive–compulsive disorder: a comparison of CBT and the metacognitive approach. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy 2 (2009), 107–122.
38. Foa, E.B., Ilai, D., McCarthy, P.R., Shoyer, B., Murdock, T., Information processing in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 17 (1993), 173–189.
39. Foa, E.B., McNally, R.J., Sensitivity to feared stimuli in obsessive–compulsives: a dichotic listening analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research 10 (1986), 477–485.
40. Franklin, S.A., McNally, R.J., Riemann, B.C., Moral reasoning in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23 (2009), 575–577, 10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.11.005.
41. Frost, R.O., Novara, C., Rheaume, J., Perfectionism in obsessive compulsive disorder. Frost, R.O., Steketee, G., (eds.) Cognitive approaches to obsessions and compulsions: theory, assessment, and treatment, 2002, Elsevier, Oxford.
42. Frost, R.O., Steketee, G., Cohn, L., Griess, K., Personality traits in subclinical and non-obsessive–compulsive volunteers and their parents. Behaviour Research and Therapy 32 (1994), 47–56.
43. Harkness, E.L., Harris, L.M., Jones, M.K., Vaccaro, L., No evidence of attentional bias in obsessive compulsive checking on the dot probe paradigm. Behaviour Research and Therapy 47 (2009), 437–443, 10.1016/j.brat.2009.02.004.
44. Harrison, B.J., Pujol, J., Soriano-Mas, C., Hernandez-Ribas, R., Lopez-Sola, M., Ortiz, H., Cardoner, N., Neural correlates of moral sensitivity in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 69 (2012), 741–749, 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2165.
45. Hazlett-Stevens, H., Zucker, B.G., Craske, M.G., The relationship of thought-action fusion to pathologicial worry and generalized anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 40 (2002), 1199–1204.
46. Hermans, D., Martens, K., De Cort, K., Pieters, G., Eelen, P., Reality monitoring and metacognitive beliefs related to cognitive confidence in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003), 383–401.
47. Hirsch, C.R., Clark, D.M., Mathews, A., Imagery and interpretations in social phobia: support for the combined cognitive biases hypothesis. Behavior Therapy 37 (2006), 223–236, 10.1016/j.beth.2006.02.001.
48. Holaway, R.M., Heimberg, R.G., Coles, M.E., A comparison of intolerance of uncertainty in analogue obsessive–compulsive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 20 (2006), 158–174.
49. Janeck, A.S., Calamari, J.E., Riemann, B.C., Heffelfinger, S.K., Too much thinking about thinking? Metacognitive differences in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 17 (2003), 181–195.
50. Kampman, M., Keijsers, G.P., Verbraak, M.J., Naring, G., Hoogduin, C.A., The emotional Stroop: a comparison of panic disorder patients, obsessive–compulsive patients, and normal controls, in two experiments. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 16 (2002), 425–441.
51. Kikul, J., Van Allen, T.S., Exner, C., Underlying mechanisms of verbal memory deficits in obsessive–compulsive disorder and major depression-the role of cognitive self-consciousness. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 43 (2012), 863–870, 10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.12.009.
52. Kikul, J., Vetter, J., Lincoln, T.M., Exner, C., Effects of cognitive self-consciousness on visual memory in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 25 (2011), 490–497, 10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.12.002.
53. Kobori, O., Salkovskis, P.M., Patterns of reassurance seeking and reassurance-related behaviours in OCD and anxiety disorders. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 41 (2013), 1–23, 10.1017/S1352465812000665 [pii].
54. Kozak, M.J., Foa, E.B., Obsessions, overvalued ideas, and delusions in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 32 (1994), 343–353, 10.1016/0005-7967(94)90132-5 [pii].
55. Kyrios, M., Iob, M.A., Automatic and strategic processing in obsessive–compulsive disorder: attentional bias, cognitive avoidance or more complex phenomena?. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 12 (1998), 271–292.
56. Ladouceur, R., Leger, E., Rheaume, J., Dube, D., Correction of inflated responsibility in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 34 (1996), 767–774.
57. Ladouceur, R., Gosselin, P., Dugas, M.J., Experimental manipulation of intolerance of uncertainty: a study of a theoretical model of worry. Behaviour Research and Therapy 38 (2000), 933–941, 10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00133-3 [pii].
58. Ladouceur, R., Rheaume, J., Freeston, M.H., Aublet, F., Jean, K., Lachance, S., et al. Experimental manipulations of responsibility: an analogue test for models of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995), 937–946.
59. Lavy, E., van Oppen, P., van den Hout, M., Selective processing of emotional information in obsessive compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 32 (1994), 243–246.
60. Lazarov, A., Dar, R., Liberman, N., Oded, Y., Obsessive–compulsive tendencies and undermined confidence are related to reliance on proxies for internal states in a false feedback paradigm. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 43 (2012), 556–564, 10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.07.007.
61. Lazarov, A., Dar, R., Liberman, N., Oded, Y., Obsessive–compulsive tendencies may be associated with attenuated access to internal states: evidence from a biofeedback-aided muscle tensing task. Consciousness and Cognition 21 (2012), 1401–1409, 10.1016/j.concog.2012.07.002.
62. Lazarov, A., Liberman, N., Hermesh, H., Dar, R., Seeking proxies for internal states in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 123 (2014), 695–704, 10.1037/abn0000004.
63. Lopatka, C., Rachman, S., Perceived responsibility and compulsive checking: an experimental analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995), 673–684.
64. MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., Tata, P., Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 95 (1986), 15–20.
65. Mataix-Cols, D., Rauch, S.L., Manzo, P.A., Jenike, M.A., Baer, L., Use of factor-analyzed symptom dimensions to predict outcome with serotonin reuptake inhibitors and placebo in the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 156 (1999), 1409–1416.
66. McNally, R.J., On the scientific status of cognitive appraisal models of anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 (2001), 513–521.
67. McNally, R.J., Kohlbeck, P.A., Reality monitoring in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 31 (1993), 249–253.
68. Merkelbach, H., Wessel, I., Memory for actions and dissociation in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders 188 (2000), 846–848.
69. Miller, G.A., Mistreating psychology in the decades of the brain. Perspectives on Psychological Science 5 (2010), 716–743, 10.1177/1745691610388774.
70. Moretz, M.W., McKay, D., The role of perfectionism in obsessive–compulsive symptoms: not just right experiences and checking compulsions. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23 (2009), 640–644, 10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.01.015.
71. Moritz, S., Fischer, B.K., Hottenrott, B., Kellner, M., Fricke, S., Randjbar, S., Jelinek, L., Words may not be enough! No increased emotional Stroop effect in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 46 (2008), 1101–1104, 10.1016/j.brat.2008.05.005.
72. Moritz, S., Jacobsen, D., Kloss, M., Fricke, S., Rufer, M., Hand, I., Examination of emotional Stroop interference in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004), 671–682, 10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00190-6.
73. Moritz, S., Jelinek, L., Inversion of the unrealistic optimism bias contributes to overestimation of threat in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 37 (2009), 179–193.
74. Moritz, S., Pohl, R.F., False beliefs maintenance for fear-related information in obsessive–compulsive disorder: an investigation with the hindsight paradigm. Neuropsychology 20 (2006), 737–742, 10.1037/0894-4105.20.6.737.
75. Moritz, S., Pohl, R.F., Biased processing of threat-related information rather than knowledge deficits contributes to overestimation of threat in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behavior Modification 33 (2009), 763–777, 10.1177/0145445509344217.
76. Muller, J., Roberts, J.E., Memory and attention in obsessive–compulsive disorder: a review. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 19 (2005), 1–28, 10.1016/j.janxdis.2003.12.001.
77. Myers, S.G., Fisher, P.L., Wells, A., Metacognition and cognition as predictors of obsessive–compulsive symptoms: a prospective study. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy 2 (2009), 132–142.
78. Myers, S.G., Wells, A., An experimental manipulation of metacognition: a test of the metacognitive model of obsessive–compulsive symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy 51 (2013), 177–184, 10.1016/j.brat.2013.01.007.
79. Nedeljkovic, M., Kyrios, M., Confidence in memory and other cognitive processes in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45 (2007), 2899–2914, 10.1016/j.brat.2007.08.001.
80. OCCWG, Cognitive assessment of obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 35 (1997), 667–681.
81. OCCWG, Development and initial validation of the obsessive beliefs questionnaire and the interpretation of intrusions inventory. Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 (2001), 987–1006.
82. OCCWG, Psychometric validation of the obsessive beliefs questionnaire and the interpretation of intrusions inventory: part I. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003), 863–878.
83. OCCWG, Psychometric validation of the obsessive belief questionnaire and interpretation of intrusions inventory? Part 2: factor analyses and testing of a brief version. Behaviour Research and Therapy 43 (2005), 1527–1542.
84. Olatunji, B.O., Rosenfield, D., Tart, C.D., Cottraux, J., Powers, M.B., Smit, J.A., Behavioral versus cognitive treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder: an examination of outcome and mediators of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 81 (2013), 415–428, 10.1037/a0031865.
85. Olley, A., Malhi, G., Sachdev, P., Memory and executive functioning in obsessive–compulsive disorder: a selective review. Journal of Affective Disorders 104 (2007), 15–23, 10.1016/j.jad.2007.02.023.
86. Purdon, C., Clark, D.A., The need to control thoughts. Frost, R.O., Steketee, G., (eds.) Cognitive approaches to obsessions and compulsions: theory, assessment, and treatment, 2002, Elsevier, Oxford.
87. Rachman, S., Obsessions, responsibility and guilt. Behaviour Research and Therapy 31 (1993), 149–154, 10.1016/0005-7967(93)90066-4 [pii].
88. Rachman, S., A cognitive theory of obsessions. Behaviour Research and Therapy 35 (1997), 793–802, 10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00040-5 [pii].
89. Rachman, S., Hodgson, R.J., Obsessions and compulsions. 1980, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
90. Rachman, S., Shafran, R., Cognitive distortions: thought-action fusion. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 6 (1999), 80–85.
91. Rachman, S., Thordarson, D.S., Shafran, R., Woody, S.R., Perceived responsibility: structure and significance. Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995), 779–784, 10.1016/0005-7967(95)00016-Q [pii].
92. Radomsky, A.S., Dugas, M.J., Alcolado, G.M., Lavoie, S.L., When more is less: doubt, repetition, memory, metamemory, and compulsive checking in OCD. Behaviour Research and Therapy 59 (2014), 30–39, 10.1016/j.brat.2014.05.008.
93. Radomsky, A.S., Rachman, S., Memory bias in obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). Behaviour Research and Therapy 37 (1999), 605–618.
94. Radomsky, A.S., Rachman, S., The importance of importance in OCD memory research. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 35 (2004), 137–151, 10.1016/j.jbtep.2004.04.005.
95. Radomsky, A.S., Rachman, S., Hammond, D., Memory bias, confidence and responsibility in compulsive checking. Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 (2001), 813–822.
96. Rheaume, J., Ladouceur, R., Freeston, M., The prediction of obsessive–compulsive tendencies: does perfectionism play a significant role?. Personality and Individual Differences 28 (2000), 583–592.
97. Rubenstein, C.S., Peynircioglu, Z.F., Chambless, D.L., Pigott, T.A., Memory in sub-clinical obsessive–compulsive checkers. Behaviour Research and Therapy 31 (1993), 759–765.
98. Salkovskis, P.M., Obsessional-compulsive problems: a cognitive-behavioural analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy 23 (1985), 571–583, 10.1016/0005-7967(85)90105-6 [pii].
99. Salkovskis, P.M., Shafran, R., Rachman, S., Freeston, M.H., Multiple pathways to inflated responsibility beliefs in obsessional problems: possible origins and implications for therapy and research. Behaviour Research and Therapy 37 (1999), 1055–1072.
100. Salkovskis, P.M., Wroe, A.L., Gledhill, A., Morrison, N., Forrester, E., Richards, C., Thorpe, S., Responsibility attitudes and interpretations are characteristic of obsessive compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 38 (2000), 347–372.
101. Sarawgi, S., Oglesby, M.E., Cougle, J.R., Intolerance of uncertainty and obsessive–compulsive symptom expression. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 44 (2013), 456–462.
102. Savage, C.R., Baer, L., Keuthen, N.J., Brown, H.D., Rauch, S.L., Jenike, M.A., Organizational strategies mediate nonverbal memory impairment in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Biological Psychiatry 45 (1999), 905–916.
103. Shafran, R., Cognitive-behavioral models of OCD. Abramowitz, J.S., Houts, A.C., (eds.) Concepts and controversies in obsessive–compulsive disorder, 2005, Springer, New York.
104. Shafran, R., Rachman, S., Thought-action fusion: a review. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 35 (2004), 87–107.
105. Shafran, R., Thordarson, D.S., Rachman, S., Thought-action fusion in obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 10 (1996), 379–391.
106. Smari, J., Martinsson, D.R., Einarsson, H., Rearing practices and impulsivity/hyperactivity symptoms in relation to inflated responsibility and obsessive–compulsive symptoms. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2010, 10.1111/j.1467-9450.2010.00819.x.
107. Solem, S., Haland, A.T., Vogel, P.A., Hansen, B., Wells, A., Change in metacognitions predicts outcome in obsessive–compulsive disorder patients undergoing treatment with exposure and response prevention. Behaviour Research and Therapy 47 (2009), 301–307, 10.1016/j.brat.2009.01.003.
108. Steketee, G., Frost, R.O., Cohen, I., Beliefs in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 12 (1998), 525–537.
109. Tata, P.R., Leibowitz, J.A., Prunty, M.J., Cameron, M., Pickering, A.D., Attentional bias in obsessional compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 34 (1996), 53–60.
110. Taylor, S., Cognition in obsessive compulsive disorder: an overview. Frost, R.O., Steketee, G., (eds.) Cognitive approaches to obsessions and compulsions: theory, assessment, and treatment, 2002, Elsevier, Oxford.
111. Taylor, S., Abramowitz, J.S., McKay, D., Calamari, J.E., Sookman, D., Kyrios, M., Carmin, C., Do dysfunctional beliefs play a role in all types of obsessive–compulsive disorder?. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 20 (2006), 85–97, 10.1016/j.janxdis.2004.11.005.
112. Taylor, S., Coles, M.E., Abramowitz, J.S., Wu, K.D., Olatunji, B.O., Timpano, K.R., Tolin, D.F., How are dysfunctional beliefs related to obsessive–compulsive symptoms?. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 24 (2010), 165–176.
113. Taylor, S., McKay, D., Abramowitz, J.S., Hierarchical structure of dysfunctional beliefs in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 34 (2005), 216–228, 10.1080/16506070510041167.
114. Thomas, S.J., Gonsalvez, C.J., Johnstone, S.J., Neural time course of threat-related attentional bias and interference in panic and obsessive–compulsive disorders. Biological Psychology 94 (2013), 116–129, 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.05.012.
115. Tolin, D.F., Abramowitz, J.S., Brigidi, B.D., Amir, N., Street, G.P., Foa, E.B., Memory and memory confidence in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 (2001), 913–927.
116. Tolin, D.F., Woods, C.M., Abramowitz, J.S., Relationsihp between obsessive beliefs and obsessive–compulsive symptoms. Cognitive Therapy and Research 27 (2003), 657–669.
117. Tulving, E., Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychologist 26 (1985), 1–12.
118. van den Heuvel, O.A., Veltman, D.J., Groenewegen, H.J., Witter, M.P., Merkelbach, J., Cath, D.C., van Dyck, R., Disorder-specific neuroanatomical correlates of attentional bias in obsessive–compulsive disorder, panic disorder, and hypochondriasis. Archives of General Psychiatry 62 (2005), 922–933, 10.1001/archpsyc.62.8.922.
119. van den Hout, M., Kindt, M., Phenomenological validity of an OCD-memory model and the remember/know distinction. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003), 369–378.
120. van den Hout, M., Kindt, M., Repeated checking causes memory distrust. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003), 301–316.
121. van den Hout, M., Kindt, M., Obsessive–compulsive disorder and the paradoxical effects of perseverative behaviour on experienced uncertainty. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 35 (2004), 165–181, 10.1016/j.jbtep.2004.04.007.
122. van den Hout, M., Kindt, M., Weiland, T., Peters, M., Instructed neutralization, spontaneous neutralization and prevented neutralization after an obsession-like thought. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 33 (2002), 177–189.
123. Weber, F., Hauke, W., Jahn, I., Stengler, K., Himmerich, H., Zaudig, M., Exner, C., Does thinking about thinking interfere with memory? An experimental memory study in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 28 (2014), 679–686, 10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.07.009.
124. Wells, A., Cartwright-Hatton, S., A short form of the metacognitions questionnaire: properties of the MCQ-30. Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004), 385–396, 10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00147-5.
125. Wells, A., Gwilliam, P., Cartwright-Hatton, S., The thought-fusion instrument. 2001, University of Manchester, UK.
126. Wells, A., Matthews, G., Attention and emotion: a clinical perspective. 1994, Erlbaum, Hov, UK.
127. Wilhelm, S., Berman, N.C., Keshaviah, A., Schwartz, R.A., Steketee, G., Mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy for obsessive compulsive disorder: role of maladaptive beliefs and schemas. Behaviour Research and Therapy 65 (2015), 5–10, 10.1016/j.brat.2014.12.006.
128. Wilhelm, S., Steketee, G., Fama, J.M., Buhlmann, U., Teachman, B.A., Golan, E., Modular cognitive therapy for obsessive–compulsive disorder: a wait-list controlled trial. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 23 (2009), 294–305.
129. Woody, S.R., Whittal, M.L., McLean, P.D., Mechanisms of symptom reduction in treatment for obsessions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 79 (2011), 653–664, 10.1037/a0024827.