The prevalence and mechanisms of metabolic syndrome in schizophrenia: A review

Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 33-51

  Papanastasiou, Evangelos ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

antipsychotic induced weight gain; cardiovascular risk factors; diabetes; dyslipidaemia; hypertension; incidence; metabolic syndrome; obesity; prevalence; schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

AMISULPRIDE; ARIPIPRAZOLE; ASENAPINE; CLOZAPINE; GLUCOSE; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; ILOPERIDONE; LURASIDONE; OLANZAPINE; PALIPERIDONE; SERTINDOLE; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; ZIPRASIDONE;

BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT; BODY MASS; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG MONITORING; DRUG SAFETY; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; LIVER METABOLISM; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OUTPATIENT CARE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SEDENTARY LIFESTYLE; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; WAIST CIRCUMFERENCE; WEIGHT GAIN;

EID: 84998080646     PISSN: 20451253     EISSN: 20451261     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/2045125312464385     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Alberti K. Eckel R. Grundy S. Zimmet P. Cleeman J. Donato K. et al. (2009) Harmonizing the metabolic syndrome: a joint interim statement of the International Diabetes Federation Task Force on Epidemiology and Prevention; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; American Heart Association; World Heart Federation; International Atherosclerosis Society; and International Association for the Study of Obesity. Circulation 120: 1640–1645.
2. Almeras N. Despres J. Villeneuve J. Demers M. Roy M. Cadrin C. et al. (2004) Development of an atherogenic metabolic risk factor profile associated with the use of atypical antipsychotics. J Clin Psychiatry 65: 557–564.
3. Attux C. Quintana M. Chaves A. (2007) Weight gain, dyslipidemia and altered parameters for metabolic syndrome on first episode psychotic patients after six-month follow-up. Rev Bras Psiquiatr 29: 346–349.
4. Basu R. Brar J. Chengappa K. John V. Parepally H. Gershon S. et al. (2004) The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in patients with schizoaffective disorder – bipolar subtype. Bipolar Disord 6: 314–318.
5. Bobes J. Arango C. Aranda P. Carmena R. Garcia-Garcia M. Rejas J. (2007) Cardiovascular and metabolic risk in outpatients with schizophrenia treated with antipsychotics: results of the Clamors Study. Schizophr Res 90: 162–173.
6. Boke O. Aker S. Sarisoy G. Saricicek E. Sahin A. (2008) Prevalence of metabolic syndrome among inpatients with schizophrenia. Int J Psychiatry Med 38: 103–112.
7. Cerit C. Ozten E. Yildiz M. (2008) [The prevalence of metabolic syndrome and related factors in patients with schizophrenia]. Turk Psikiyatri Derg 19: 124–132.
8. Cheng C. Chiu H. Loh E. Chan C. Hwu T. Liu Y. et al. (2012) Association of the ADRA1A gene and the severity of metabolic abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 36: 205–210.
9. Cohn T. Prud'homme D. Streiner D. Kameh H. Remington G. (2004) Characterizing coronary heart disease risk in chronic schizophrenia: high prevalence of the metabolic syndrome. Can J Psychiatry 49: 753–760.
10. Cornier M. Dabelea D. Hernandez T. Lindstrom R. Steig A. Stob N. et al. (2008) The metabolic syndrome. Endocr Rev 29: 777–822.
11. Correll C. Frederickson A. Kane J. Manu P. (2006) Metabolic syndrome and the risk of coronary heart disease in 367 patients treated with second-generation antipsychotic drugs. J Clin Psychiatry 67: 575–583.
12. Correll C. Frederickson A. Kane J. Manu P. (2007) Does antipsychotic polypharmacy increase the risk for metabolic syndrome? Schizophr Res 89: 91–100.
13. Correll C. Frederickson A. Kane J. Manu P. (2008) Equally increased risk for metabolic syndrome in patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia treated with second-generation antipsychotics. Bipolar Disord 10: 788–797.
14. Curtis J. Henry C. Watkins A. Newall H. Samaras K. Ward P. (2011) Metabolic abnormalities in an early psychosis service: a retrospective, naturalistic cross-sectional study. Early Interv Psychiatry 5: 108–114.
15. D’Agostino R. Vasan R. Pencina M. Wolf P. Cobain M. Massaro J. et al. (2008) General cardiovascular risk profile for use in primary care: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 117: 743–753.
16. Danaei G. Finucane M. Lin J. Singh G. Paciorek C. Cowan M. et al. (2011) National, regional, and global trends in systolic blood pressure since 1980: systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with 786 country-years and 5.4 million participants. Lancet 377: 568–577.
17. De Hert M. Detraux J. Van Winkel R. Yu W. Correll C. (2012a) Metabolic and cardiovascular adverse effects associated with antipsychotic drugs. Nat Rev Endocrinol 8: 114–126.
18. De Hert M. Falissard B. Mauri M. Shaw K. Wetterling T. (2008a) Epidemiological study for the evaluation of metabolic disorders in patients with schizophrenia: the METEOR study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 18: S444–S445.
19. De Hert M. Hanssens L. Wampers M. Van Winkel R. Van Eyck D. Scheen A. et al. (2007) Prevalence and incidence rates of metabolic abnormalities and diabetes in a prospective study of patients treated with second-generation antipsychotics. Schizophr Bull 33: 560.
20. De Hert M. Mauri M. Shaw K. Wetterling T. Doble A. Giudicelli A. et al. (2010) The METEOR study of diabetes and other metabolic disorders in patients with schizophrenia treated with antipsychotic drugs. I. Methodology. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res 19: 195–210.
21. De Hert M. Schreurs V. Sweers K. Van Eyck D. Hanssens L. Sinko S. et al. (2008b) Typical and atypical antipsychotics differentially affect long-term incidence rates of the metabolic syndrome in first-episode patients with schizophrenia: a retrospective chart review. Schizophr Res 101: 295–303.
22. De Hert M. Schreurs V. Vancampfort D. Van Winkel R. (2009) Metabolic syndrome in people with schizophrenia: a review. World Psychiatry 8: 15–22.
23. De Hert M. Van Winkel R. Van Eyck D. Hanssens L. Wampers M. Scheen A. et al. (2006a) Prevalence of diabetes, metabolic syndrome and metabolic abnormalities in schizophrenia over the course of the illness: a cross-sectional study. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health 2: 14.
24. De Hert M. Van Winkel R. Van Eyck D. Hanssens L. Wampers M. Scheen A. et al. (2006b) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia treated with antipsychotic medication. Schizophr Res 83: 87–93.
25. De Hert M. Yu W. Detraux J. Sweers K. Van Winkel R. Correll C. (2012b) Body weight and metabolic adverse effects of asenapine, iloperidone, lurasidone and paliperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a systematic review and exploratory meta-analysis. CNS Drugs 26: 733–759.
26. Farzadfar F. Finucane M. Danaei G. Pelizzari P. Cowan M. Paciorek C. et al. (2011) National, regional, and global trends in serum total cholesterol since 1980: systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with 321 country-years and 3.0 million participants. Lancet 377: 578–586.
27. Fernandez-Egea E. Bernardo M. Donner T. Conget I. Parellada E. Justicia A. et al. (2009) Metabolic profile of antipsychotic-naive individuals with non-affective psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 194: 434–438.
28. Fernandez-Egea E. Bernardo M. Parellada E. Justicia A. Garcia-Rizo C. Esmatjes E. et al. (2008a) Glucose abnormalities in the siblings of people with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 103: 110–113.
29. Fernandez-Egea E. Miller B. Bernardo M. Donner T. Kirkpatrick B. (2008b) Parental history of type 2 diabetes in patients with nonaffective psychosis. Schizophr Res 98: 302–306.
30. Finucane M. Stevens G. Cowan M. Danaei G. Lin J. Paciorek C. et al. (2011) National, regional, and global trends in body-mass index since 1980: systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with 960 country-years and 9.1 million participants. Lancet 377: 557–567.
31. Hagg S. Lindblom Y. Mjorndal T. Adolfsson R. (2006) High prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among a Swedish cohort of patients with schizophrenia. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 21: 93–98.
32. Hansen T. Ingason A. Djurovic S. Melle I. Fenger M. Gustafsson O. et al. (2011) At-risk variant in TCF7l2 for type II diabetes increases risk of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 70: 59–63.
33. Heiskanen T. Niskanen L. Lyytikainen R. Saarinen P. Hintikka J. (2003) Metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 64: 575–579.
34. Huang M. Lu M. Tsai C. Chen P. Chiu C. Jian D. et al. (2009) Prevalence of metabolic syndrome among patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder in Taiwan. Acta Psychiatr Scand 120: 274–280.
35. International Diabetes Federation (2006) The IDF Consensus Worldwide Definition of the Metabolic Syndrome. Brussels: International Diabetes Federation.
36. Jin H. Meyer J. Jeste D. (2004) Atypical antipsychotics and glucose dysregulation: a systematic review. Schizophr Res 71: 195–212.
37. Kang S. Kim K. Kang G. Lee K. Kim K. Soh M. et al. (2011) Cross-sectional prevalence of metabolic syndrome in korean patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 128: 179–181.
38. Kathiresan S. Melander O. Anevski D. Guiducci C. Burtt N. Roos C. et al. (2008) Polymorphisms associated with cholesterol and risk of cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 358: 1240.
39. Kato M. Currier M. Gomez C. Hall L. Gonzalez-Blanco M. (2004) Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Hispanic and non-Hispanic patients with schizophrenia. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry 6: 74–77.
40. Kim E. Lee N. Kim S. Jung D. Ahn Y. (2010) Change in the rate of metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder in the course of treatment. Bipolar Disord 12: 31–31.
41. Koponen H. Alaraisanen A. Saari K. Pelkonen O. Huikuri H. Raatikainen M. et al. (2008) Schizophrenia and sudden cardiac death – a review. Nord J Psychiatry 62: 342–345.
42. Koponen H. Hakko H. Saari K. Lindeman S. Karvonen K. Isohanni M. et al. (2010) The prevalence and predictive value of individual criteria for metabolic syndrome in schizophrenia: a northern Finland 1966 birth cohort study. World J Biol Psychiatry 11: 262–267.
43. Kraemer S. Minarzyk A. Forst T. Kopf D. Hundemer H. (2011) Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia, and metabolic changes after 3 months of treatment with antipsychotics – results from a German observational study. BMC Psychiatry 11: 173.
44. Kraemer S. Minarzyk A. Hundemer H. Forst T. Kopf D. (2010) Sex-specific differences in the prevalence of metabolic syndrome components in patients with schizophrenia - results from a German observational study. J Psychopharmacol 24: A45.
45. Kraja A. Vaidya D. Pankow J. Goodarzi M. Assimes T. Kullo I. et al. (2011) A bivariate genome-wide approach to metabolic syndrome: STAMPEED consortium. Diabetes 60: 1329–1339.
46. Kuzman M. Mueller D. (2012) Association of the MTHFR gene with antipsychotic-induced metabolic abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia. Pharmacogenomics 13: 843–846.
47. Lamberti J. Olson D. Crilly J. Olivares T. Williams G. Tu X. et al. (2006) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among patients receiving clozapine. Am J Psychiatry 163: 1273–1276.
48. Lee N. Kim S. Jung D. Kim E. Yu H. Sung K. et al. (2011) The prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Korean patients with schizophrenia receiving a monotherapy with aripiprazole, olanzapine or risperidone. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 35: 1273–1278.
49. Lee N. Yu H. Jung D. Kim S. Kim Y. Ahn Y. (2009) Higher prevalence of metabolic syndrome in patient with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia in Korean population. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 19: S540.
50. Leucht S. Burkard T. Henderson J. Maj M. Sartorius N. (2007a) Physical illness and schizophrenia: a review of the literature. Acta Psychiatr Scand 116: 317–333.
51. Leucht S. Burkard T. Henderson J. Maj M. Sartorius N. (2007b) Physical Illness and Schizophrenia: A Review of the Evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge Universtiy Press.
52. Levy D. Ehret G. Rice K. Verwoert G. Launer L. Dehghan A. et al. (2009) Genome-wide association study of blood pressure and hypertension. Nat Genet 41: 677–687.
53. Lindley S. Schroder C. Hara R. Fazio S. (2008) Insulin resistance in schizophrenia, major depression, and bipolar disorder. In: Frosch W. (ed), Insulin Resistance Syndrome and Neuropsychiatric Disease. New York: Informa Healthcare.
54. L’Italien G. Casey D. Kan H. Carson W. Marcus R. (2007) Comparison of metabolic syndrome incidence among schizophrenia patients treated with aripiprazole versus olanzapine or placebo. J Clin Psychiatry 68: 1510–1516.
55. Mackin P. Bishop D. Watkinson H. Gallagher P. Ferrier I. (2007) Metabolic disease and cardiovascular risk in people treated with antipsychotics in the community. Br J Psychiatry 191: 23–29.
56. Maudsley H. (1979) The Pathology of Mind. 3rd ed. London: Macmillan.
57. McEvoy J. Meyer J. Goff K. (2005) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia: baseline results from the Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) schizophrenia trial and comparison with national estimates from NHANES III. Schizophr Res 80: 19–32.
58. Mendelson S.D. (2008) Metabolic Syndrome and Psychiatric Illness. In: Mendelson S.D. (ed), Metabolic Syndrome and Psychiatric Illness: Interactions, Pathophysiology, Assessment and Treatment. Academic Press: London.
59. Meyer J. Davis V. Goff D. McEvoy J. Nasrallah H. Davis S. et al. (2008) Change in metabolic syndrome parameters with antipsychotic treatment in the CATIE schizophrenia trial: prospective data from phase 1. Schizophr Res 101: 273–286.
60. Meyer J. Koro C. (2004) The effects of antipsychotic therapy on serum lipids: a comprehensive review. Schizophr Res 70: 1–17.
61. Meyer J. Koro C. L’Italien G. (2005a) The metabolic syndrome and schizophrenia: a review. Int Rev Psychiatry 17: 173–180.
62. Meyer J. Loh C. Leckband S. Boyd J. Wirshing W. Pierre J. et al. (2006) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in veterans with schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Pract 12: 5–10.
63. Meyer J. Nasrallah H. McEvoy J. (2005b) The Clinical Anti-Psychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) schizophrenia trial: clinical comparison of subgroups with and without the metabolic syndrome. Schizophr Res 80: 9–18.
64. Meyer J. Stahl S. (2009) The metabolic syndrome and schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 119: 4–14.
65. Milewicz A. Tworowska-Bardzińska U. Jędrzejuk D. Lwow F. Dunajska K. Łaczmański Ł. et al. (2010) Are endocannabinoid type 1 receptor gene (CNR1) polymorphisms associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome in postmenopausal Polish women. Int J Obes 35: 373–377.
66. Mitchell A. Delaffon V. Vancampfort D. Correll C. De Hert M. (2012a) Guideline concordant monitoring of metabolic risk in people treated with antipsychotic medication: systematic review and meta-analysis of screening practices. Psychol Med 42: 125–127.
67. Mitchell A. Vancampfort D. De Herdt A. Yu W. De Hert M. (2012b) Is the prevalence of metabolic syndrome and metabolic abnormalities increased in early schizophrenia? A comparative meta-analysis of first episode, untreated and treated patients. Schizophr Bull 27 August (Epub ahead of print).
68. Mitchell A. Vancampfort D. Sweers K. Van Winkel R. Yu W. De Hert M. (2011) Prevalence of metabolic syndrome and metabolic abnormalities in schizophrenia and related disorders – a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull 29 December (Epub ahead of print).
69. Moons T. Claes S. Martens G. Peuskens J. Van Loo K. Van Schijndel J. et al. (2011) Clock genes and body composition in patients with schizophrenia under treatment with antipsychotic drugs. Schizophr Res 125: 187–193.
70. Morrato E. Newcomer J. Allen R. Valuck R. (2008) Prevalence of baseline serum glucose and lipid testing in users of second-generation antipsychotic drugs: a retrospective, population-based study of Medicaid claims data. J Clin Psychiatry 69: 316–322.
71. Morrato E. Newcomer J. Kamat S. Baser O. Harnett J. Cuffel B. (2009) Metabolic screening after the American Diabetes Association's consensus statement on antipsychotic drugs and diabetes. Diabetes Care 32: 1037–1042.
72. Mozumdar A. Liguori G. (2011) Persistent increase of prevalence of metabolic syndrome among US adults: NHANES III to NHANES 1999–2006. Diabetes Care 34: 216–219.
73. Mulder H. Cohen D. Scheffer H. Gispen-De Wied C. Arends J. Wilmink F. et al. (2009) HTR2C gene polymorphisms and the metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia: a replication study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 29: 16–20.
74. Mulder H. Franke B. Van der-Beek A. Arends J. Wilmink F. Scheffer H. et al. (2007) The association between HTR2C gene polymorphisms and the metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 27: 338–343.
75. Newcomer J. (2005) Second-generation atypical antipsychotics and metabolic effects. a comprehensive literature review. CNS Drugs 19: 1–93.
76. Newton-Cheh C. Johnson T. Gateva V. Tobin M. Bochud M. Coin L. et al. (2009) Genome-wide association study identifies eight loci associated with blood pressure. Nat Genet 41: 666–676.
77. Padmavati R. McCreadie R. Tirupati S. (2010) Low prevalence of obesity and metabolic syndrome in never-treated chronic schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 121: 199–202.
78. Rejas J. Bobes J. Arango C. Aranda P. Carmena R. Garcia-Garcia M. (2008) Concordance of standard and modified NCEP ATP III criteria for identification of metabolic syndrome in outpatients with schizophrenia treated with antipsychotics: a corollary from the CLAMORS study. Schizophr Res 99: 23–28.
79. Rezaei O. Khodaie-Ardakani M. Mandegar M. Dogmehchi E. Goodarzynejad H. (2009) Prevalence of metabolic syndrome among an Iranian cohort of inpatients with schizophrenia. Int J Psychiatry Med 39: 451–462.
80. Saari K. Lindeman S. Viilo K. Isohanni M. Jarvelin M. Lauren L. et al. (2005) A 4-fold risk of metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia: the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort study. J Clin Psychiatry 66: 559–563.
81. Saddichha S. Ameen S. Akhtar S. (2007) Incidence of new onset metabolic syndrome with atypical antipsychotics in first episode schizophrenia: a six-week prospective study in Indian female patients. Schizophr Res 95: 247.
82. Saddichha S. Manjunatha N. Ameen S. Akhtar S. (2008) Metabolic syndrome in first episode schizophrenia – a randomized double-blind controlled, short-term prospective study. Schizophr Res 101: 266–272.
83. Saha S. Chant D. McGrath J. (2007) A systematic review of mortality in schizophrenia – is the differential mortality gap worsening over time? Arch Gen Psychiatry 64: 1123–1131.
84. Schorr S. Slooff C. Bruggeman R. Taxis K. (2009) Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in patients with psychotic disorders in the Netherlands. J Clin Psychopharmacol 29: 399–402.
85. Sicras-Mainar A. Blanca-Tamayo M. Rejas-Gutierrez J. Navarro-Artieda R. (2008) Metabolic syndrome in outpatients receiving antipsychotic therapy in routine clinical practice: a cross-sectional assessment of a primary health care database. Eur Psychiatry 23: 100–108.
86. Simon V. Van Winkel R. De Hert M. (2009) Are weight gain and metabolic side effects of atypical antipsychotics dose dependent? A literature review. J Clin Psychiatry 70: 1041–1050.
87. Smith M. Hopkins D. Peveler R. Holt R. Woodward M. Ismail K. (2008) First- v. second-generation antipsychotics and risk for diabetes in schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 192: 406–411.
88. Speliotes E. (2010) Association analyses of 249,796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass index. Nat Genet 42: 937–950.
89. Srisurapanont M. Likhitsathian S. Boonyanaruthee V. Charnsilp C. Jarusuraisin N. (2007) Metabolic syndrome in Thai schizophrenic patients: a naturalistic one-year follow-up study. BMC Psychiatry 7: 14.
90. Straker D. Correll C. Kramer-Ginsberg E. Abdulhamid N. Koshy F. Rubens E. et al. (2005) Cost-effective screening for the metabolic syndrome in patients treated with second-generation antipsychotic medications. Am J Psychiatry 162: 1217–1221.
91. Subashini R. Deepa M. Padmavati R. Thara R. Mohan V. (2011) Prevalence of diabetes, obesity, and metabolic syndrome in subjects with and without schizophrenia (CURES-104). J Postgrad Med 57: 272–277.
92. Sugawara N. Yasui-Furukori N. Sato Y. Kishida I. Yamashita H. Saito M. et al. (2011) Comparison of prevalence of metabolic syndrome in hospital and community-based Japanese patients with schizophrenia. Ann Gen Psychiatry 10: 21.
93. Sugawara N. Yasui-Furukori N. Sato Y. Umeda T. Kishida I. Yamashita H. et al. (2010) Prevalence of metabolic syndrome among patients with schizophrenia in Japan. Schizophr Res 123: 244–250.
94. Suvisaari J. Saarni S. Perala J. Suvisaari J. Harkanen T. Lonnqvist J. et al. (2007) Metabolic syndrome among persons with schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders in a general population survey. J Clin Psychiatry 68: 1045–1055.
95. Tandon R. Nasrallah H. Keshavan M. (2009) Schizophrenia, ‘just the facts’ 4. Clinical features and conceptualization. Schizophr Res 110: 1–23.
96. Taylor D. McAskill R. (2000) Atypical antipsychotics and weight gain – a systematic review. Acta Psychiatr Scand 101: 416–432.
97. Teixeira P. Rochal F. (2007) The prevalence of metabolic syndrome among psychiatric inpatients in Brazil. Rev Bras Psiquiatr 29: 330–336.
98. Teslovich T. Musunuru K. Smith A. Edmondson A. Stylianou I. Koseki M. et al. (2010) Biological, clinical and population relevance of 95 loci for blood lipids. Nature 466: 707–713.
99. Thakore J. Mann J. Vlahos I. Martin A. Reznek R. (2002) Increased visceral fat distribution in drug-naive and drug-free patients with schizophrenia. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 26: 137–141.
100. Tirupati S. Chua L. (2007) Obesity and metabolic syndrome in a psychiatric rehabilitation service. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 41: 606–610.
101. Van Winkel R. Rutten B. Peerbooms O. Peuskens J. Van Os J. De Hert M. (2010) MTHFR and risk of metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 121: 193–198.
102. Van Winkel R. Van Os J. Celic I. Van Eyck D. Wampers M. Scheen A. et al. (2008) Psychiatric diagnosis as an independent risk factor for metabolic disturbances: results from a comprehensive, naturalistic screening program. J Clin Psychiatry 69: 1319–1327.
103. Venkatasubramanian G. Chittiprol S. Neelakantachar N. Naveen M. Thirthall J. Gangadhar B. et al. (2007) Insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 abnormalities in anti psychotic-naive schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 164: 1557–1560.
104. Wang J. Ban M. Zou G. Cao H. Lin T. Kennedy B. et al. (2008) Polygenic determinants of severe hypertriglyceridemia. Hum Mol Genet 17: 2894.
105. Yazici M. Anil Yagcioglu A. Ertugrul A. Eni N. Karahan S. Karaagaoglu E. et al. (2011) The prevalence and clinical correlates of metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia: findings from a cohort in Turkey. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 261: 69–78.
106. Zabaneh D. Balding D. (2010) A genome-wide association study of the metabolic syndrome in Indian Asian men. PloS One 5: e11961.
107. Zeggini E. Scott L. Saxena R. Voight B. Marchini J. Hu T. et al. (2008) Meta-analysis of genome-wide association data and large-scale replication identifies additional susceptibility loci for type 2 diabetes. Nat Genet 40: 638–645.