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Volumn 6, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 3-47

Form and meaning in the earliest cities: A new approach to ancient urban planning

Author keywords

ancient cities; archaeology; built environment; comparative urbanism; urban planning

Indexed keywords


EID: 84993711275     PISSN: 15385132     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1538513206293713     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (235)

References (124)
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    • (New York: Cambridge University Press reviews this concept, its justification, and the nature of scholarly documentation.
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    • (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall ) and Joyce Marcus, “On the Nature of the Mesoamerican City,” in Prehistoric Settlement Patterns: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, ed. Evon Z. Vogt and Richard M. Leventhal (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983), 195-242.
    • Richard G. Fox, Urban Anthropology: Cities in Their Cultural Settings (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1977); and Joyce Marcus, “On the Nature of the Mesoamerican City,” in Prehistoric Settlement Patterns: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, ed. Evon Z. Vogt and Richard M. Leventhal (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983), 195-242.
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    • For example, (Baltimore: Arnold, Edward A. E. J. Morris, History of Urban Form: Before the Industrial Revolution, 3rd ed. (New York: Longman, 1994), 8-10 Jorge E. Hardoy, Pre-Columbian Cities (New York: Walker, 1973), 523-25 E. J. Owens, The City in the Greek and Roman World (New York: Routledge, 1991), 1-30 Ferdinando Castagnoli, Orthogonal Town Planning in Antiquity (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1971) Marc Van De Mieroop, The Ancient Mesopotamian City (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 83-94 and Dora P. Crouch and June G. Johnson, Tradition in Architecture: Africa, America, Asia, and Oceania (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 210-13.
    • For example, see Harold Carter, An Introduction to Urban Historical Geography (Baltimore: Arnold, Edward, 1983), 10-10; A. E. J. Morris, History of Urban Form: Before the Industrial Revolution, 3rd ed. (New York: Longman, 1994), 8-10; Jorge E. Hardoy, Pre-Columbian Cities (New York: Walker, 1973), 523-25; E. J. Owens, The City in the Greek and Roman World (New York: Routledge, 1991), 1-30; Ferdinando Castagnoli, Orthogonal Town Planning in Antiquity (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1971); Marc Van De Mieroop, The Ancient Mesopotamian City (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 83-94; and Dora P. Crouch and June G. Johnson, Tradition in Architecture: Africa, America, Asia, and Oceania (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 210-13.
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    • Monumental Architecture: A Thermodynamic Explanation of Behavior
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    • Bruce G. Trigger, “Monumental Architecture: A Thermodynamic Explanation of Behavior,” World Archaeology 22 (1990): 119-132; Jerry D. Moore, Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes: The Archaeology of Public Buildings (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and Joyce Marcus, “Monumentality in Archaic States: Lessons Learned from Large-Scale Excavations of the Past,” in Theory and Practice in Mediterranean Archaeology: Old World and New World Perspectives, ed. John K. Papadopoulos and Richard M. Leventhal (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, 2003), 115-34.
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    • Construction and Cosmology: Politics and Ideology in Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns
    • ed. (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press 272-272. Ashmore uses the phrase “site planning” as a synonym for city planning. She is not referring to what modern planners call site planning Kevin Lynch, Site Planning (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1962). It could be argued that her phrase confuses the archaeological remains surviving today and studied by archaeologists (i.e., archaeological sites) with the dynamic ancient urban settlements whose characteristics archaeologists try to reconstruct from archaeological sites (i.e., cities and towns). For another definition of ancient planning based on intentions, Martin Biddle, “The Evolution of Towns: Planned Towns before 1066,” in The Plans and Topography of Medieval Towns in England and Wales, ed. M. W. Barley, Research Report no. 14 (London: Council for British Archaeology, 1976), 19-32.
    • Wendy Ashmore, “Construction and Cosmology: Politics and Ideology in Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns,” in Word and Image in Maya Culture: Explorations in Language, Writing, and Representation, ed. William F. Hanks and Don S. Rice (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1989), 272-286, 272-272. Ashmore uses the phrase “site planning” as a synonym for city planning. She is not referring to what modern planners call site planning; see Kevin Lynch, Site Planning (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1962). It could be argued that her phrase confuses the archaeological remains surviving today and studied by archaeologists (i.e., archaeological sites) with the dynamic ancient urban settlements whose characteristics archaeologists try to reconstruct from archaeological sites (i.e., cities and towns). For another definition of ancient planning based on intentions, see Martin Biddle, “The Evolution of Towns: Planned Towns before 1066,” in The Plans and Topography of Medieval Towns in England and Wales, ed. M. W. Barley, Research Report no. 14 (London: Council for British Archaeology, 1976), 19-32.
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    • See R. Barry Lewis, Charles Stout, and Cameron B. Wesson, “The Design of Mississippian Towns,” in Mississippian Towns and Sacred Spaces: Searching for an Architectural Grammar, ed. R. Barry Lewis and Charles Stout (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1998), 1-21. It is often argued that urban settlements are only found in states, not chiefdoms, and thus Mississippian towns should be eliminated from considerations of urbanism; for example, Paul D. Welch, “How Early Were Cities in the Eastern United States?” Journal of Urban History 30 (2004): 594-604. The functional approach to urbanism followed here, however, admits Cahokia and other Mississippian sites as fully urban settlements based on the administrative and religious urban functions based in their central towns. On Mississippian towns, see Timothy R. Pauketat, Ancient Cahokia and the Mississippians, Case Studies in Early Societies (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Lewis, Stout, and Wesson, “The Design of Mississippian Towns” and William R. Swagerty, “Urban Indians before Columbus” (review essay), Journal of Urban History 26 (2000): 493-507.
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    • Mohenjo-Daro: Type Site of the Earliest Urbanization Process in South Asia
    • Others have argued that the residential neighborhoods of Mohenjo-Daro do indeed exhibit true orthogonal planning, with the successive use of different alignments ed. Howard Spodek and Doris Meth Srinivasan, vol. 31, Studies in the History of Art, Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, Symposium Papers XV (Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1993) Mohenjo-Daro and other Harappan cities clearly exhibit various types of nonorthogonal planning, and several overall features of these cities (e.g., the citadel and major avenues) are laid out orthogonally Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization (Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 1998). Nevertheless, the residential neighborhoods seem to fit better in the category of semiorthogonal urban blocks.
    • Others have argued that the residential neighborhoods of Mohenjo-Daro do indeed exhibit true orthogonal planning, with the successive use of different alignments; see Michael R.N. Jansen, “Mohenjo-Daro: Type Site of the Earliest Urbanization Process in South Asia,” in Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times, ed. Howard Spodek and Doris Meth Srinivasan, vol. 31, Studies in the History of Art, Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, Symposium Papers XV (Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1993), 35-51. Mohenjo-Daro and other Harappan cities clearly exhibit various types of nonorthogonal planning, and several overall features of these cities (e.g., the citadel and major avenues) are laid out orthogonally; see Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization (Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 1998). Nevertheless, the residential neighborhoods seem to fit better in the category of semiorthogonal urban blocks.
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    • Moore, Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes, 153-64 William Cavanagh, “Empty Space? Courts and Squares in Mycenaean Towns,” in Urbanism in the Aegean Bronze Age, ed. Keith Branigan, vol. 4, Sheffield Studies in Aegean Archaeology (Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic, 2002), 119-34 and Takeshi Inomata, “The Classic Maya Palace as a Political Theater,” in Reconstruyendo La Ciudad Maya: El Urbanismo En Las Sociedades Antiguas, ed. Andrés Ciudad Ruiz, María Josefa Iglesias Ponce de León, and María del Carmen Martínez Martínez (Madrid: Sociedad Española de Estudios Mayas, 2001), 341-62.
    • Kemp, Ancient Egypt, 205-217; Moore, Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes, 153-64; William Cavanagh, “Empty Space? Courts and Squares in Mycenaean Towns,” in Urbanism in the Aegean Bronze Age, ed. Keith Branigan, vol. 4, Sheffield Studies in Aegean Archaeology (Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic, 2002), 119-34; and Takeshi Inomata, “The Classic Maya Palace as a Political Theater,” in Reconstruyendo La Ciudad Maya: El Urbanismo En Las Sociedades Antiguas, ed. Andrés Ciudad Ruiz, María Josefa Iglesias Ponce de León, and María del Carmen Martínez Martínez (Madrid: Sociedad Española de Estudios Mayas, 2001), 341-62.
    • Ancient Egypt , pp. 205-217
    • Kemp1
  • 63
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    • Vision, Perception and GIS: Developing Enriched Approaches to the Study of Archaeological Visibility
    • ed. Nato Science Series A: Life Sciences (Amsterdam: IOS Press
    • David Wheatley and Mark Gillings, “Vision, Perception and GIS: Developing Enriched Approaches to the Study of Archaeological Visibility,” in Beyond the Map: Archaeology and Spatial Technologies, ed. Gary R. Lock, Nato Science Series A: Life Sciences (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2000), 1-27.
    • (2000) Beyond the Map: Archaeology and Spatial Technologies , pp. 1-27
    • Wheatley, D.1    Gillings, M.2    Lock, G.R.3
  • 65
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    • and George F. Andrews, Maya Cities: Placemaking and Urbanization (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975).
    • Ciudad Ruiz, Iglesias Ponce de León, and Martínez Martínez, Reconstruyendo La Ciudad Maya; and George F. Andrews, Maya Cities: Placemaking and Urbanization (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975).
    • Reconstruyendo La Ciudad Maya
    • Ruiz, C.1    Ponce de León, I.2    Martínez, M.3
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    • trans. Patricia J. Lyon (Bloomington: Indiana University Press ) and Hyslop, Inka Settlement Planning.
    • Graziano Gasparini and Luise Margolies, Inca Architecture, trans. Patricia J. Lyon (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980); and Hyslop, Inka Settlement Planning.
    • (1980) Inca Architecture
    • Gasparini, G.1    Margolies, L.2
  • 68
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    • The Archaeology of Aztec City-State Capitals
    • and Ancient Cities of the New World series (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, in press).
    • Smith, “The Archaeology of Aztec City-State Capitals” and Michael E. Smith, Aztec City-State Capitals, Ancient Cities of the New World series (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, in press).
    • Aztec City-State Capitals
    • Smith, M.E.1    Smith2
  • 70
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    • Dumarçay and Royère, Cambodian Architecture Isbell and McEwan, Huari Administrative Structures Hyslop, Inka Settlement Planning Lewis, Stout, and Wesson, “The Design of Mississippian Towns” Thomas H. Charlton, “The Influence and Legacy of Teotihuacan on Regional Routes and Urban Planning,” in Ancient Road Networds and Settlement Hierarchies in the New World, ed. Charles D. Trombold (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 186-97 and Castagnoli, Orthogonal Town Planning in Antiquity.
    • Cavanagh, “Empty Space?” Dumarçay and Royère, Cambodian Architecture; Isbell and McEwan, Huari Administrative Structures; Hyslop, Inka Settlement Planning; Lewis, Stout, and Wesson, “The Design of Mississippian Towns” Thomas H. Charlton, “The Influence and Legacy of Teotihuacan on Regional Routes and Urban Planning,” in Ancient Road Networds and Settlement Hierarchies in the New World, ed. Charles D. Trombold (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 186-97; and Castagnoli, Orthogonal Town Planning in Antiquity.
    • “Empty Space?”
    • Cavanagh1
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    • Archaeoastronomy in the Ancient Americas
    • 163 - 163. also Aveni and Hartung, Maya City Planning and the Calendar.
    • Anthony F. Aveni, “Archaeoastronomy in the Ancient Americas,” Journal of Archaeological Research 11 (2003): 149-191, 163-163. See also Aveni and Hartung, Maya City Planning and the Calendar.
    • (2003) Journal of Archaeological Research , vol.11 , pp. 149-191
    • Aveni, A.F.1
  • 73
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    • and Aveni and Hartung, Maya City Planning and the Calendar.
    • Gasparini, “The Pre-Hispanic Grid System” and Aveni and Hartung, Maya City Planning and the Calendar.
    • “The Pre-Hispanic Grid System”
    • Gasparini1
  • 74
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    • (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press ) and R. Bruce Drewitt, “Measurement Units and Building Axes at Teotihuacan,” in Teotihuacán: Nuevos Datos, Nuevas Síntesis, Nuevos Problemas, ed. Emily McClung de Tapia and Evelyn C. Rattray (Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1987), 389-98.
    • Eleanor Mannikka, Angkor Wat: Time, Space, and Kingship (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996); and R. Bruce Drewitt, “Measurement Units and Building Axes at Teotihuacan,” in Teotihuacán: Nuevos Datos, Nuevas Síntesis, Nuevos Problemas, ed. Emily McClung de Tapia and Evelyn C. Rattray (Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1987), 389-98.
    • (1996) Angkor Wat: Time, Space, and Kingship
    • Mannikka, E.1
  • 75
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    • Worldview Materialized in Teotihuacan, Mexico
    • and Mannikka, Angkor Wat.
    • Saburo Sugiyama, “Worldview Materialized in Teotihuacan, Mexico,” Latin American Antiquity 4 (1993): 103-129; and Mannikka, Angkor Wat.
    • (1993) Latin American Antiquity , vol.4 , pp. 103-129
    • Sugiyama, S.1
  • 76
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    • City Size in Late Postclassic Mesoamerica
    • Michael E. Smith, “City Size in Late Postclassic Mesoamerica,” Journal of Urban History 31 (2005): 403-434.
    • (2005) Journal of Urban History , vol.31 , pp. 403-434
    • Smith, M.E.1
  • 80
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    • A Geomantic Model for the Interpretation of Mesoamerican Sites: An Essay in Cross-Cultural Comparison
    • For example ed. (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Davíd Carrasco, City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization (Boston: Beacon, 1999) and Wheatley, The Pivot of the Four Quarters.
    • For example, John B. Carlson, “A Geomantic Model for the Interpretation of Mesoamerican Sites: An Essay in Cross-Cultural Comparison,” in Mesoamerican Sites and World-views, ed. Elizabeth P. Benson (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1981), 143-216; Davíd Carrasco, City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization (Boston: Beacon, 1999); and Wheatley, The Pivot of the Four Quarters.
    • (1981) Mesoamerican Sites and World-views , pp. 143-216
    • Benson, E.P.1    Carlson, J.B.2
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    • The Cosmology of the Chinese City
    • ed. (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press Steinhardt, Chinese Imperial City Planning and Wheatley, The Pivot of the Four Quarters.
    • Arthur F. Wright, “The Cosmology of the Chinese City,” in The City in Late Imperial China, ed. G. William Skinner (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1977), 33-73; Steinhardt, Chinese Imperial City Planning; and Wheatley, The Pivot of the Four Quarters.
    • (1977) The City in Late Imperial China , pp. 33-73
    • Wright, A.F.1    William Skinner, G.2
  • 84
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    • John McKim Malville and Lalit M. Gurjal, eds., Ancient Cities, Sacred Skies: Cosmic Geometries and City Planning in Ancient India (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 2000) and John M. Fritz, George Michell, and M. S. Negaraja Rao, Where Kings and Gods Meet: The Royal Center at Vijayanagara, India (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1984).
    • Spodek and Srinivasan, Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia; John McKim Malville and Lalit M. Gurjal, eds., Ancient Cities, Sacred Skies: Cosmic Geometries and City Planning in Ancient India (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 2000); and John M. Fritz, George Michell, and M. S. Negaraja Rao, Where Kings and Gods Meet: The Royal Center at Vijayanagara, India (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1984).
    • Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia
    • Spodek1    Srinivasan2
  • 85
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    • (New York: Thames and Hudson ) Fletcher, “Seeing Angkor” Dumarçay and Royère, Cambodian Architecture and Mannikka, Angkor Wat.
    • Michael D. Coe, Angkor and the Khmer Civilization (New York: Thames and Hudson, 2003); Fletcher, “Seeing Angkor” Dumarçay and Royère, Cambodian Architecture; and Mannikka, Angkor Wat.
    • (2003) Angkor and the Khmer Civilization
    • Coe, M.D.1
  • 87
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    • Did the Maya Build Architectural Cosmograms?
    • Michael E. Smith, “Did the Maya Build Architectural Cosmograms?” Latin American Antiquity 16 (2005): 217-224.
    • (2005) Latin American Antiquity , vol.16 , pp. 217-224
    • Smith, M.E.1
  • 90
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    • Cognitive Archaeology
    • and Kemp, “Bricks and Metaphor.”
    • Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, “Cognitive Archaeology,” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 3 (1993): 260-270; and Kemp, “Bricks and Metaphor.”
    • (1993) Cambridge Archaeological Journal , vol.3 , pp. 260-270
    • Flannery, K.V.1    Marcus, J.2
  • 91
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    • Cross-Cultural Comparison and Archaeological Theory
    • ed. (Oxford: Blackwell 59-59 and Ian Hodder, ed., The Archaeology of Contextual Meanings (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
    • Bruce G. Trigger, “Cross-Cultural Comparison and Archaeological Theory,” in A Companion to Social Archaeology, ed. Robert W. Preucel and Lynn Meskell (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 43-65, 59-59; and Ian Hodder, ed., The Archaeology of Contextual Meanings (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
    • (2004) A Companion to Social Archaeology , pp. 43-65
    • Trigger, B.G.1    Preucel, R.W.2    Meskell, L.3
  • 92
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    • Wendy Ashmore and Jeremy A. Sabloff, “Spatial Orders in Maya Civic Plans,” Latin American Antiquity 13 (2002): 201-15 Michael E. Smith, “Can We Read Cosmology in Ancient Maya City Plans? Comment on Ashmore and Sabloff,” Latin American Antiquity 14 (2003): 221-28 and Smith, “Did the Maya Build Architectural Cosmograms?” For other examples of universalist interpretations of ancient planning based on the concepts of Eliade, Jeffrey Soles, “The Functions of a Cosmological Center: Knossos in Palatial Crete,” in Politeia: Society and State in the Aegean Bronze Age, ed. Robert Laffineur and Wolf-Dietrich Niemeir, vol. 12, Aegaeum (Liège, Belgium: Université de Liège, 1995), 405-14 and the papers in Malville and Gurjal, Ancient Cities, Sacred Skies.
    • Ashmore, “Construction and Cosmology” Wendy Ashmore and Jeremy A. Sabloff, “Spatial Orders in Maya Civic Plans,” Latin American Antiquity 13 (2002): 201-15; Michael E. Smith, “Can We Read Cosmology in Ancient Maya City Plans? Comment on Ashmore and Sabloff,” Latin American Antiquity 14 (2003): 221-28; and Smith, “Did the Maya Build Architectural Cosmograms?” For other examples of universalist interpretations of ancient planning based on the concepts of Eliade, see Jeffrey Soles, “The Functions of a Cosmological Center: Knossos in Palatial Crete,” in Politeia: Society and State in the Aegean Bronze Age, ed. Robert Laffineur and Wolf-Dietrich Niemeir, vol. 12, Aegaeum (Liège, Belgium: Université de Liège, 1995), 405-14; and the papers in Malville and Gurjal, Ancient Cities, Sacred Skies.
    • “Construction and Cosmology”
    • Ashmore1
  • 93
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    • El Puma De Cuzco
    • Monica Barnes and Daniel Slive, “El Puma De Cuzco,” Revista Andina 11, no. 1 (1993): 79-102.
    • (1993) Revista Andina , vol.11 , Issue.no. 1 , pp. 79-102
    • Barnes, M.1    Slive, D.2
  • 95
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    • Several additional factors hinder the analysis of the high-level meanings of ancient cities. First, because modern cities have lost their high-level meanings, this is a foreign concept for modern authors; see Rapoport, “On the Nature of Capitals and Their Physical Expression.” As a result, one often finds one of two extreme (and contradictory) interpretations: dismissal of the concept of high-level meanings for cities or facile acceptance of the concept with little empirical evidence. Second, there is a long tradition of overstressing the role of religion in ancient societies. Popular accounts often suggest that ancient peoples were fundamentally different from modern peoples in their preoccupation with the gods or with death. For example, many popular authors have gone along with the exaggerated and ethnocentric observations of the ancient Greek author Herodotus, who said of the Egyptians, “They are religious to excess.” See discussion in
    • 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press) This view of the excessive religiosity of ancient peoples goes against the findings of comparative anthropology Trigger, Understanding Early Civilizations, 410-13. When applied to cities and urban planning, this biased view of ancient peoples translates into an exaggerated emphasis on the religious and symbolic aspects of city layout.
    • Several additional factors hinder the analysis of the high-level meanings of ancient cities. First, because modern cities have lost their high-level meanings, this is a foreign concept for modern authors; see Rapoport, “On the Nature of Capitals and Their Physical Expression.” As a result, one often finds one of two extreme (and contradictory) interpretations: dismissal of the concept of high-level meanings for cities or facile acceptance of the concept with little empirical evidence. Second, there is a long tradition of overstressing the role of religion in ancient societies. Popular accounts often suggest that ancient peoples were fundamentally different from modern peoples in their preoccupation with the gods or with death. For example, many popular authors have gone along with the exaggerated and ethnocentric observations of the ancient Greek author Herodotus, who said of the Egyptians, “They are religious to excess.” See discussion in Robert J. Wenke, Patterns in Prehistory: Humankind's First Three Million Years, 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 461-64. This view of the excessive religiosity of ancient peoples goes against the findings of comparative anthropology; see Trigger, Understanding Early Civilizations, 410-13. When applied to cities and urban planning, this biased view of ancient peoples translates into an exaggerated emphasis on the religious and symbolic aspects of city layout.
    • (1999) Patterns in Prehistory: Humankind's First Three Million Years , pp. 461-464
    • Wenke, R.J.1
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    • Continuity and Change in Public Architecture: Periods I through V of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico
    • ed. vol. 23, Memoirs (Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan Marcus, “Monumentality in Archaic States” Trigger, “Monumental Architecture” and Rapoport, “On the Nature of Capitals and Their Physical Expression.”
    • Richard E. Blanton, “Continuity and Change in Public Architecture: Periods I through V of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico,” in Monte Alban's Hinterland, Part II: Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in Tlacolula, Etla, and Ocotlan, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, ed. Stephen A. Kowalewski, Gary M. Feinman, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton, and Linda M. Nicholas, vol. 23, Memoirs (Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1989), 409-447; Marcus, “Monumentality in Archaic States” Trigger, “Monumental Architecture” and Rapoport, “On the Nature of Capitals and Their Physical Expression.”
    • (1989) Monte Alban's Hinterland, Part II: Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in Tlacolula, Etla, and Ocotlan, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico , pp. 409-447
    • Blanton, R.E.1    Kowalewski, S.A.2    Feinman, G.M.3    Finsten, L.4    Blanton, R.E.5    Nicholas, L.M.6
  • 100
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    • (New York: Thames and Hudson and Trigger, Understanding Early Civilizations, 377-89.
    • Mark Lehner, The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997), 224-225; and Trigger, Understanding Early Civilizations, 377-89.
    • (1997) The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries , pp. 224-225
    • Lehner, M.1
  • 101
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    • Teotihuacan: Cosmic Glories and Mundane Needs
    • ed. (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press 44-44 John E. Clark, “Mesoamerica Goes Public: Early Ceremonial Centers, Leaders, and Communities,” in Mesoamerican Archaeology: Theory and Practice, ed. Julia A. Hendon and Rosemary Joyce (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 43-72, 61 Adam T. Smith, “Rendering the Political Aesthetic: Political Legitimacy in Urartian Representations of the Built Environment,” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 19 (2000): 131-63, 138 Smith, The Political Landscape, 165 and Timothy R. Pauketat, “The Tragedy of the Commoners,” in Agency in Archaeology, ed. Marcia-Anne Dobres and John E. Robb (London: Routledge, 2000), 113-29.
    • George L. Cowgill, “Teotihuacan: Cosmic Glories and Mundane Needs,” in The Social Construction of Ancient Cities, ed. Monica L. Smith (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2003), 37-55, 44-44; John E. Clark, “Mesoamerica Goes Public: Early Ceremonial Centers, Leaders, and Communities,” in Mesoamerican Archaeology: Theory and Practice, ed. Julia A. Hendon and Rosemary Joyce (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 43-72, 61; Adam T. Smith, “Rendering the Political Aesthetic: Political Legitimacy in Urartian Representations of the Built Environment,” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 19 (2000): 131-63, 138; Smith, The Political Landscape, 165; and Timothy R. Pauketat, “The Tragedy of the Commoners,” in Agency in Archaeology, ed. Marcia-Anne Dobres and John E. Robb (London: Routledge, 2000), 113-29.
    • (2003) The Social Construction of Ancient Cities , pp. 37-55
    • Cowgill, G.L.1    Smith, M.L.2
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    • For example Edward W. Soja, Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000) and Dolores Hayden, The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995).
    • For example, Lynch, The Image of the City; Edward W. Soja, Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); and Dolores Hayden, The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995).
    • The Image of the City
    • Lynch1
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    • (New York: Cambridge University Press ) and William H. Isbell and Alexei Vranich, “Experiencing the Cities of Wari and Tiwanaku,” in Andean Archaeology, ed. Helaine Silverman (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 167-82.
    • Diane C. Favro, The Urban Image of Augustan Rome (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and William H. Isbell and Alexei Vranich, “Experiencing the Cities of Wari and Tiwanaku,” in Andean Archaeology, ed. Helaine Silverman (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 167-82.
    • (1996) The Urban Image of Augustan Rome
    • Favro, D.C.1
  • 105
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    • Smith, The Political Landscape and Bill Hillier and Julienne Hanson, The Social Logic of Space (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
    • Moore, Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes; Smith, The Political Landscape; and Bill Hillier and Julienne Hanson, The Social Logic of Space (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
    • Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes
    • Moore1
  • 106
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    • Space, Place and Inka Domination in Northwest Argentina
    • ed. James R. Mathieu, vol. S1035, British Archaeological Reports, International Series (Oxford: Archaeopress
    • Chad Gifford and Félix Acuto, “Space, Place and Inka Domination in Northwest Argentina,” in Experimental Archaeology: Replicating Past Objects, Behaviors, and Processes, ed. James R. Mathieu, vol. S1035, British Archaeological Reports, International Series (Oxford: Archaeopress, 2002), 95-110.
    • (2002) Experimental Archaeology: Replicating Past Objects, Behaviors, and Processes , pp. 95-110
    • Gifford, C.1    Acuto, F.2
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    • For example Soja, Postmetropolis, 62 and Malville and Gurjal, Ancient Cities, Sacred Skies.
    • For example, Rykwert, The Idea of a Town, 26-26; Soja, Postmetropolis, 62; and Malville and Gurjal, Ancient Cities, Sacred Skies.
    • The Idea of a Town , pp. 26
    • Rykwert1
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    • The Origin and Spread of the Grid Pattern Town
    • Carter, An Introduction to Urban Historical Geography and Kostof, The City Shaped.
    • Dan Stanislawski, “The Origin and Spread of the Grid Pattern Town,” Geographical Review 36 (1946): 105-120; Carter, An Introduction to Urban Historical Geography; and Kostof, The City Shaped.
    • (1946) Geographical Review , vol.36 , pp. 105-120
    • Stanislawski, D.1
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    • The Morphogenesis of Iranian Cities
    • Dora P. Crouch, Daniel J. Garr, and Axel I. Mundingo, Spanish City Planning in North America (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982) and John R. Mullin, “The Reconstruction of Lisbon Following the Earthquake of 1755: A Study in Despotic Planning,” Planning Perspectives 7 (1992): 157-79.
    • Michael E. Bonine, “The Morphogenesis of Iranian Cities,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 69 (1979): 208-224; Dora P. Crouch, Daniel J. Garr, and Axel I. Mundingo, Spanish City Planning in North America (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982); and John R. Mullin, “The Reconstruction of Lisbon Following the Earthquake of 1755: A Study in Despotic Planning,” Planning Perspectives 7 (1992): 157-79.
    • (1979) Annals of the Association of American Geographers , vol.69 , pp. 208-224
    • Bonine, M.E.1
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    • City as Symbol in Aztec Thought: Some Clues from the Codex Mendoza
    • and Johanna Broda, David Carrasco, and Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, The Great Temple of Tenochtitlan: Center and Periphery in the Aztec World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987).
    • Davíd Carrasco, “City as Symbol in Aztec Thought: Some Clues from the Codex Mendoza,” in Carrasco, City of Sacrifice, 15-48; and Johanna Broda, David Carrasco, and Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, The Great Temple of Tenochtitlan: Center and Periphery in the Aztec World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987).
    • City of Sacrifice , pp. 15-48
    • Carrasco, D.1    Carrasco2
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    • Settlement Pattern and Chinampa Agriculture at Tenochtitlan
    • Edward E. Calnek, “Settlement Pattern and Chinampa Agriculture at Tenochtitlan,” American Antiquity 37 (1972): 104-115.
    • (1972) American Antiquity , vol.37 , pp. 104-115
    • Calnek, E.E.1
  • 117
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    • Huitzilopochtli's Conquest: Aztec Ideology in the Archaeological Record
    • Elizabeth M. Brumfiel, “Huitzilopochtli's Conquest: Aztec Ideology in the Archaeological Record,” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 8 (1998): 3-14.
    • (1998) Cambridge Archaeological Journal , vol.8 , pp. 3-14
    • Brumfiel, E.M.1
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    • Antiques, Revivals, and References to the Past in Aztec Art
    • and Smith, “The Archaeology of Aztec City-State Capitals.”
    • Emily Umberger, “Antiques, Revivals, and References to the Past in Aztec Art,” RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 13 (1987): 62-105; and Smith, “The Archaeology of Aztec City-State Capitals.”
    • (1987) RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics , vol.13 , pp. 62-105
    • Umberger, E.1
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    • Arguments in Stone: Archaeological Research and the European Town in the First Millennium
    • vol. 29 (Oxford: Oxbow
    • Martin Carver, Arguments in Stone: Archaeological Research and the European Town in the First Millennium, Oxbow Monographs, vol. 29 (Oxford: Oxbow, 1994).
    • (1994) Oxbow Monographs
    • Carver, M.1
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    • Government heritage managers are typically more interested in an attractive restoration of a later architectural period than in the destruction of the later buildings to unearth the fragmentary earlier buildings below.
    • Government heritage managers are typically more interested in an attractive restoration of a later architectural period than in the destruction of the later buildings to unearth the fragmentary earlier buildings below.
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    • (Oxford: Blackwell ) Gasparini and Margolies, Inca Architecture and Hyslop, Inka Settlement Planning.
    • Terence N. D'Altroy, The Incas (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002); Gasparini and Margolies, Inca Architecture; and Hyslop, Inka Settlement Planning.
    • (2002) The Incas
    • D'Altroy, T.N.1
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    • and Smith, “The Archaeology of Aztec City-State Capitals.”
    • Smith, The Aztecs, 37-42; and Smith, “The Archaeology of Aztec City-State Capitals.”
    • The Aztecs , pp. 37-42
    • Smith1
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    • Reshaping Cities: The Staging of Political Transformation
    • Wim P. Blockmans, “Reshaping Cities: The Staging of Political Transformation,” Journal of Urban History 30 (2003): 7-20.
    • (2003) Journal of Urban History , vol.30 , pp. 7-20
    • Blockmans, W.P.1


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.