Israel and chemical/biological weapons: History, deterrence, and arms control

Nonproliferation Review

Volumn 8, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 27-53

  Cohen, Avner ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84992545669     PISSN: 10736700     EISSN: 17461766     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10736700108436862     Document Type: Article

References (205)

1. Michael Keren, Ben-Gurion and the Intellectuals (Sdeh Boker: The Ben-Gurion Research Center Press, 1988 [in Hebrew]), p. 32.
2. David Ben-Gurion, Be-mah NekabelPneiHabaot [With What Will We Face the Future] (Tel Aviv: MerkazMiflegetPo’alei Eretz Israel, November 1948), pp. 35-36;.
3. Ephraim Katzir, “The Beginning of Defense Research: Ben-Gurion and the HEMED,” in David Ben-Gurion and the Development of Science in Israel, pp. 26-27;.
4. David Ben-Gurion, Be-hilahem Israel [When Israel Fights] (Tel Aviv: AmOved, 1950), p. 236. The author did the English translation.
5. Shimon Peres, Battling for Peace: A Memoir (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1995), p. 132.
6. Tom Segev, The Seventh Million: The Israelis and the Holocaust (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993) p. 82.
7. David Ben-Gurion Archive, Letters’, cited in Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), p. 358.
8. David Ben-Gurion, War Diaries, 1948-1949 (in Hebrew), vol. 3 (Tel Aviv: Misrad Habitachon, 1982) pp. 852-53.
9. John F. Kennedy, June 24, 1962, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, MA.
10. David Ben-Gurion Archive, War Diaries, entries of April 26,1949, and October23,1950.
11. Zaki Shalom, David Ben-Gurion: The State of Israel and the Arab World 1949-1956 (in Hebrew) (Sdeh Boker: Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Press, 1995).
12. Professor Yuval Ne’eman, Head ofthePlanningDivision ofthelDF in 1953-54, personal communication with author, May 1997.
13. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, pp. 339-49.
14. Aharon Katachalsky [Katzir] was the first to discuss the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with Ben-Gurion. Renana Leshem, Tel Aviv, Israel, interview by author, 1996.
15. Ephraim Katzir, “The Beginning of Defense Research: Ben-Gurion and the HEMED” (in Hebrew), David Ben-Gurion and the Development of Science in Israel (Jerusalem: Israel National Academy of Science, 1989), pp. 25-42;.
16. Munya Mardor, RAFAEL (Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defense Publishing House, 1981), pp. 70-72.
17. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, pp. 14-17.
18. Shimon Peres, Battlingfor Peace, p. 134.
19. Shimon Peres, From These Men (Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defense Publishing House, 1975), p. 186.
20. Sara Leibovitz- Dar, “Haydakim Besherut Hamedinah” [Microbes in State Service], Hadashot, August 13,1993, pp. 6-10.
21. Sara Leibovitz- Dar, Hadashot, p. 6.
22. Ehud Sprinzak and Idith Zertal, “Avenging Israel’s Blood (1946),” in Jonathan B. Tucker, ed., Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000), pp. 17-41.
23. Milton Leitenberg, “Biological Weapons in the Twentieth Century: Review and Analysis,” paper prepared for 7th International Symposium on Protection against Chemical and Biological Warfare, Stockholm, Sweden, June 2001, .
24. Sara Leibovitz-Dar, “Haydakim Besherut Hamedinah.”.
25. Sara Leibovitz-Dar, “Haydakim Besherut Hamedinah.”, p. 6.
26. Colonel Shlomo Gur, July 7,1992.
27. Colonel Shlomo Gur.
28. Colonel Shlomo Gur.
29. Colonel Shlomo Gur.
30. Colonel Shlomo Gur.
31. Colonel Shlomo Gur.
32. Colonel Shlomo Gur.
33. Thomas J. Hamilton, “Arab Assails the Idea of Minority Shifts,” New York Times, July 24,1948;.
34. Sara Leibovitz-Dar, “Haydakim Besherut Hamedinah.”.
35. Sara Leibovitz-Dar, “Haydakim Besherut Hamedinah.”.
36. Sara Leibovitz-Dar, “Haydakim Besherut Hamedinah.”.
37. Sara Leibovitz-Dar, “Haydakim Besherut Hamedinah.”.
38. Sara Leibovitz-Dar, “Haydakim Besherut Hamedinah.”.
39. Khalil Sakakini Cultural Center, as well as the website of the Center for Research and Documentation on Palestinian Society at Birzeit University, .
40. Thomas J. Hamilton, “Arab Assails the Idea of Minority Shifts.”.
41. W. Seth Cants, Bioterrorism and Biocrimes: The Illicit Use ofBiological Agents Since 1900, Working Paper (Washington DC: Center for Counterproliferation Research, February 2001), pp. 87-88.
42. Dr. Salman Abu Sitta, speech delivered to U.K. House of Commons, London, November 24,1999, .
43. Benny Morris, “The Origins of the Palestinian Refugee Problem,” in Laurence J. Silberstein, ed., New Perspectives on Israeli History (New York: New York University Press, 1991), pp. 46-47.
44. Benny Morris, Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict (New York:AlffedA. Knopf, 1999), p. 217.
45. Sara Leibovitz-Dar, “Haydakim Besherut Hamedinah,” pp. 6-7.
46. Munya Mardor, RAFAEL, pp. 53-66,78-79,104-6;.
47. Colonel Shlomo Gur, interview by author, Tel Aviv, June 1993.
48. Munya Mardor, RAFAEL, pp. 69-75;.
49. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, pp. 27-31.
50. Munya Mardor, RAFAEL, p. 75.
51. Norman Rose, Chaim Weizmann: A Biography (New York: Viking, 1986), pp. 453-54. On Weizmann’s strong resentment of the changes at the Sieff Institute, see MivharIgrot [Selected Letters] (Tel Aviv: AmOved, 1988);.
52. Munya Mardor, RAFAEL, p. 75.
53. Aaron KJieman, ed., “Chaim Weizmann to Ernst Bergmann,” July 2,1951, cited in Barnet Litvinoff, ed., The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann, August 1947-June 1952, vol. 23, series A (New York: Rutgers University, 1980), p. 304.
54. Munya Mardor, RAFAEL, pp. 92-93..
55. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, chap. 2-3.
56. Barton Bernstein, “Origins of Biological Warfare Programs,” in Susan Wright, ed., Preventing a Biological Arms Race (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 9-26;.
57. Susan Wright, “Evolution of Biological Warfare Policy, 1945-1990,” in Wright, ed., Preventing a Biological Arms Race, pp. 26-68;.
58. Brian Balmer, “The Drift of Biological Weapons Policy in the UK, 1945-1965,” Journal of Strategic Studies, (December 1997), pp. 115-45;.
59. Milton Leitenberg, “Biological Weapons in the Twentieth Century.”.
60. B Bergmann to David Ben-Gurion, December 5,1952, in Mardor, RAFAEL, pp. 94-95;.
61. B Bergmann to David Ben-Gurion, May 4,1955, in Igeret, Israeli Academy of Sciences, November 2000, p. 30.
62. Munya Mardor, EMET’s administrator, wrote the following about Bergmann: “While it was natural to me that a prominent scientist as Professor Bergmann would seek to expand pure [basic] science, and not solely for defense needs, I could not always identify with such a trend, which was a violation of EMET’s objectives.” See Mardor, RAFAEL, p. 95.
63. Ludwig Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981) is regarded as a classic. David Bergmann to the Commissioner of Civil Service, “The Late Professor Ludwig Fleck,” June 16,1961, Box 6313/Gimmel, Israel State Archive.
64. Yitzhak Greenberg, Defense Budgets and Military Power: The Case ofIsrael (Tel Aviv: Misrad Habitachon, 1997), p. 177. These figures illustrate the claim that CBW matters played a very limited role in Israel’s overall defense posture.
65. Shlomo Abramovitz and Mordechai Allon, “The Place Where Oranges are Not Growing,” Yediot Ahronot, August 14,1998, pp. 16-20.
66. Shlomo Abramovitz and Mordechai Allon, Yediot Ahronot.
67. Peter Pringle, “Israel Germ Expert Feared in Soviet Union,” Observer, September 8,1985;.
68. Ian Black, “Israel Holds Scientist for Spying,” Guardian (London), February 26,1988;.
69. Michael Binyon, “Riddle of three-way Spy Swap Report,” Times (London), February 27,1988;.
70. Peter Pringle, “‘Missing’ Israeli Scientist Was Jailed as Spy,” Independent (London), August 4,1993, p. 12;.
71. Alex Fishman, et al., “Prof. Klingberg Passed on the KGB Secrets of Biological Warfare,” Hadashot (in Hebrew), August 3,1993, pp. 4-5;.
72. Yossi Melman, “The Soviet Spy Marcus Klingberg Submitted Pardon Request on Health Grounds,” Ha’aretz (in Hebrew), August 4,1993;.
73. Michael Rotem, “Klingberg Was to be Part of 3-Way Spy Swap,” Jerusalem Post, August 6,1993;.
74. “L’espion qui venait du Yiddishland,” Nouvel Observateur, January 6,1994, pp. 60-64;.
75. Clyde Haberman, “Israel Lifts Secrecy Veil from Spy Convictions,” New York Times, May 4,1995, A3;.
76. Batsheva Tsur, “Court Orders Klingberg Free,” Jerusalem Post, September 4, 1998;.
77. P. R. Kumaraswamy, “An Embarrassment of Spies,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scien- /;j£s(March-April 1999), pp. 14-15,61.
78. Yossi Melman, “The Soviet Spy Marcus Klingberg.”.
79. Peter Pringle, “‘Missing’ Israeli Scientist Was Jailed as Spy,” p. 12.
80. Peter Pringle, “’Missing’ Israeli Scientist Was Jailed as Spy”;.
81. Aharon Priel, “Nobody Knows,” Ma ’ariv, October 24, 1983;.
82. Fishman et al., “Prof. Klingberg Passed on the KGB Secrets of Biological Warfare.”.
83. Peter Pringle, “‘Missing’ Israeli Scientist Was Jailed as Spy”;.
84. Fishman et al., “Prof. Klingberg Passed on the KGB Secrets of Biological Warfare”;.
85. Yossi Melman, “The Soviet Spy Marcus Klingberg Submitted Pardon Request on Health Grounds”;.
86. Michael Rotem, “Klingberg Was to be Part of 3-Way Spy Swap”;.
87. Clyde Haberman, “Israeli Lifts Secrecy Veil from Spy Convictions.”.
88. “Israel Town Assails Bio Building,” Associated Press, October 8,1998.
89. Mark Lavie, “Rumors Abound About Israeli Center,” Associated Press, October24,1998.
90. Shlomo Abramovitz and Mordechai Allon, “The Place Where Oranges are Not Growing,” pp. 16-20;.
91. Peter Hirschberg, “Inside the Low White Buildings,” Jerusalem Report, December 21,1998, p. 18;.
92. Aliza Marcus, “In Israeli Town, Rare Challenge to Arms Plant,” Boston Globe, November 24,1998, p. Al;.
93. “Israelis Play Dice with Danger at Germ Warfare Plant,” Guardian, October 12,1998, p. 10. Due to the Israeli societal taboo and military censorship, there is almost no Israeli- based material about IIBR; references to CBW activity are based on “foreign sources.”.
94. “Israel’s Secret Institute,” Foreign Report, August 20,1998.
95. Peter Hirschberg, “Inside the Low White Buildings,” Jerusalem Report, December21,1998, p. 18.
96. Peter Hirschberg, Harms van den Berg, and Herman Stall, “The Fatal Fallout from El Al Flight 1862” Jerusalem Report, December 21,1998, pp. 16-21.
97. Aluf Benn, “Chemical Weapons Convention: Israel’s Decision Time,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 57 (March-April 200IX) pp. 22-24.
98. Aluf Benn, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
99. IIBR, “Mechanisms of Viral and Bacterial Pathogenesis,” October 25,2001, .
100. IIBR, “Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases,” October 25, 2001, . It appears that the IIBR mission includes some epidemiological functions analogous to those of the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States.
101. AIuf Benn, “IIBR in Ness Ziona—Center of Essential Knowledge that Employs 320 Personnel,” Ha ’aretz, August 4,1993, p. 2.
102. Karel Knip, “Biologie in Ness Ziona,” NRCHandelsband (Rotterdam), Feb- ruaty 27,1999. The detailed expose in Dutch can be found on the NRC website at the following address: .
103. Karel Knip, NRCHandelsband (Rotterdam).
104. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare (Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksel, 1971), Vol. 1, pp. 75-78; Vol. n, pp. 35-36.
105. Susan Wright, “Evolution ofBiological Warfare Policy,” p. 35.
106. Susan Wright, “Evolution ofBiological Warfare Policy,”.
107. Susan Wright and Stuart Ketcham, “The Problem of Interpreting the U.S. Biological Defense Research Program,” in Wright, pp. 169-196;.
108. Marc Lappe, “Ethics in Biological Warfare Research,” in Wright, 78-99.
109. Aluf Benn, “Chemical Weapons Convention: Israel’s Decision Time.”.
110. Aluf Benn, “Israel Reviews Decision not to Sign BW Pact,” Ha ’aretz (Online Edition), January 2,2001.
111. Peter Hirschberg, “Inside the Low White Buildings,” Jerusalem Report, December21,1998, p. 18.
112. Uzi Mahnaimi, “Israeli Jets Equipped for Chemical Warfare,” Sunday Times (London), October 4,1998.
113. “Israel’s Secret Institute,” Foreign Report, August 20,1998;.
114. “Israel’s Nes Ziona Mystery,” Foreign Report, February 5, 1998.
115. Sam Nunn, U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee, FY1975 Department of Defense Authorization Hearings, Part 5 (R&D), March 7,1974, p. 42-90.
116. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risk, OTA-ISC-559 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), pp. 65,80.
117. Milton Leitenberg, “An Assessment of the Biological Weapons Threat to the United States,” White Paper prepared for Conference on Emerging Threats Assessment, Institute for Security Technology Studies, Dartmouth College, July 7-9, 2000.
118. Milton Leitenberg, “Biological Weapons, International Sanctions and Proliferation,” Asian Perspective (Winter 1997), p. 11.
119. Judith Miller et al, “U.S. Germ Warfare Research Pushes Treaty Limits,” New York Times, February 4,2001, p Al;.
120. Judith Miller, “When Is a Bomb not a Bomb?” New York Times, February 5, 2001;.
121. Barbara H. Rosenberg and Milton Leitenberg, “Who’s Afraid of a Germ Warfare Treaty?” Los Angeles Times, September 6,2001;.
122. Elisa D. Harris, “Research Not to Be Hidden,” New York Times, September 6,2001, A27.
123. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, chap. 2-3.
124. Aluf Benn, “The Project that Preceded the Nuclear Option,” Ha ’aretz, March 2,1995.
125. Munya Mardor, RAFAEL, p. 128.
126. Munya Mardor, pp. 128-29.
127. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, chap. 3-4.
128. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), The Problem of Chemical and Biological Weapons, vol. 1, The Rise of CB Weapons (New York: Humanities Press, 1971), pp. 86-87,159-61,336-41.
129. SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, vol. 5 (New York: Humanities Press, 1971), p. 227.
130. SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, pp. 228-37.
131. W. Andrew Terril, “The Chemical Warfare Legacy of the Yemen War,” Comparative Strategy, 102 (1991), pp. 109-119;.
132. Dany Shoham, “Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt,” Nonproliferation Review 5 (Spring-Summer 1998), pp. 48-58.
133. M. Navias, “Ballistic Missile Proliferation in the Middle East,” Survival (May/June 1989);.
134. Dan Raviv and Yossi Melman, Every Spy a Prince (New York: Houghton Mifflin,1990);.
135. Meir Amit, Rosh Be-Rosh [Head On] (Tel Aviv: Hed Artzi, 1999) pp. 101-125.
136. Seymour Hersh, The Samson Option (New York; Random House, 1991), pp. 63-64.
137. Julian Perry Robinson, “Behind the VX Disclosure,” New Scientist, January 9,1975, p. 50.
138. Z. Pelchowicz and H. Leader, “Organophosphorous Compounds, Part V,” Journal ofChemical Society (1962), pp. 3320-23.
139. Munya Mardor, RAFAEL, p. 128.
140. Dany Shoham, “Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt,” p. 49.
141. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, chap. 12.
142. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, chap. 13.
143. Yuval Ne’eman, “Israel in the Nuclear Weapons Age” (in Hebrew), Nativ 8 (September 1995), p. 38.
144. Hedrick Smith, “U.S. Assumes the Israelis Have A-Bomb or Its Parts,” New York Times, 18 July 1970, p. 1..
145. Dany Shoham, “Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt,” p. 49.
146. Dany Shoham, “Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt,” p. 50.
147. Shai Feldman, Israeli Nuclear Deterrence (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981) and Yair Evron, Israeli Nuclear Dilemma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994).
148. Shoham, “Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt,” p. 51.
149. Thomas McNaugher, “Ballistic Missiles and Chemical Weapons: The Legacy of the Iran-Iraq War,” International Security 15 (Fall 1990), pp. 5-34.
150. “President Warns Israel, Criticizes U.S.,” Iraqi News Agency, April 1,1990, in FBIS-NES-90-064 (April 3,1990), p. 32;.
151. Alan Cowell, “Iraqi Chief, Boasting of Poison Gas, Warns of Destruction if Israel Strikes,” New York Times, April 3, 1990;.
152. Karen Eliot House, “Iraqi President Hussein Sees New Mideast War Unless America Acts,” Wall Street Journal, June 28,1990, p. l.
153. In fact, Iraq had crude binary CW that had to be mixed by hand.
154. “Saddam Husayn Addresses Islamic Conference,” Baghdad Domestic Service (radio), in FBIS-90-118 (June 19,1990) p. 21.
155. Avner Cohen and Marvin Miller, “Nuclear Shadow in the Middle East,” Security Studies 1 (Autumn 1991), pp. 54-77.
156. Shai Feldman, “Israeli Deterrence and the Gulf War,” in Joseph Alpher, ed., War in the Gulf: Implications for Israel (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 184-208;.
157. Amatzia Baram, “Israeli Deterrence, Iraqi Responses,” Orb is 36 (Summer 1992), pp. 397-209.
158. Avigdor Haselkom, The Continuing Storm (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), chap. 3-4.
159. James A. Baker HI, The Politics of Diplomacy (New York: J.P. Putnam Sons, 1995), pp. 359-60.
160. Avner Cohen, “The Israeli Press Covers, and Then Covers Up, the Bomb,” Deadline 6 (Summer 1991), pp. 17-19;.
161. Shai Feldman, “Israeli Deterrence and the Gulf War”; Haselkom, The Continuing Storm.
162. Gerald M. Steinberg, “Parameters of Stable Deterrence in a Proliferated Middle East: Lessons from the 1991 Gulf War,” Nonproliferation Review 7 (Fall-Winter, 2000), pp. 43-60;.
163. Shai Feldman, “Israeli Deterrence and the Gulf War”;.
164. DavidA. Welch, The Politics and Psychology of Restraint: Israeli Decision-Making in the Gulf War,” International Security 57 (Spring 1992), pp. 328-69.
165. Haselkom, “Wartime Strategic Deterrence,” chap. 4 in The Continuing Storm.
166. “Israelis See Chemical Option Against Iraq,” New York Times, July 28,1990.
167. Raymond A. Zilinskas, “Iraq’s Biological Warfare Program: The Past as Future?” in Joshua Lederberg, ed., Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat, BCSIA Studies in International Security (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999), pp. 137-58;.
168. Timothy V. McCarthy and Jonathan B. Tucker, “Saddam’s Toxic Arsenal: Chemical and Biological Weapons in the Gulf Wars,” in Peter Lavoy, et al., eds., Planning the Unthinkable: How New Powers Will Use Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Weapons (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000), pp. 47-78;.
169. Milton Leitenberg, “Deadly Unknown About Iraq’s Biological Weapons Program,” Asian Perspective 24, No. 1 (2000), pp. 217-223;.
170. Stephen Black, “Investigating Iraq’s Biological Weapons Program,” in Lederberg, Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat, pp. 158-64;.
171. Richard Butler, “Inspecting Iraq,” in Joseph Cirincione, ed., Repairing the Regime (New York: Routledge, 2000), 175-84. For an UNSCOM chronology of the Iraqi BW program, see UNSC Document No S/1995/864, October 11,1995;.
172. R. Jeffrey Smith, “Iraq’s Drive for a Biological Arsenal,” Washington Post, November21,1997, p. 1.
173. Etgar Lefkovits, “Iraq Brags of Biological Weapons to ‘Deal with Zionist Entity,’"Jerusalem Post, July 18,2000, p. 1.
174. Haselkom, The Continuing Storm, chap. 4.
175. Seth Caras and Laurie Mylroie, personal communication with author, Washington, DC, August 2001.
176. U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation:1hreat and Response (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, April 1996);.
177. Defense Nuclear Agency, “Biological Weapons Proliferation” (Ft Detrick, MD: U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, April 1994) p. 49;.
178. Rear Adm. Lowell Jacoby, Director of Intelligence, Joint Staff, “Anthrax Biological Warfare Threat,” statement before the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services, April 13,2000.
179. Benn, “Chemical Weapons Convention: Israel’s Decision Time,” pp. 22-24.
180. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, pp. 287-89,326-27.
181. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, pp. 287-89,326-27, chap. 17.
182. Gerald Steinberg, “Israeli Policy on the CWC,” OPCWSynthesis, November 2000, pp.9-13.
183. Steve Rodan, “Bitter Choices: Israel’s Chemical Dilemma,” Jerusalem Post, Augustl5,1997, p. 10;.
184. David Makovsky, “Israel Must Ratify Chemical Treaty,” Ha’aretz (Online Edition), January 8,1998, ; Benn, “Chemical Weapons Convention: Israel’s Decision Time.”.
185. Ze’ev Schiff, “An interview with Yitzhak Mordechai,” Ha ’aretz, April 16, 1998, p. 10.
186. Gerald Steinberg, “Israeli Policy on the CWC.”.
187. Aluf Benn, “A Difficult Choice: The Chemical Weapons Convention,” Ha ’aretz (Online edition), November 29,2000, < http://www.haaretz.co.il>;.
188. Aluf Benn, “Chemical Weapons Convention: Israel’s Decision Time,” pp. 22-24.
189. Aluf Benn, “Chemical Weapons Convention: Israel’s Decision Time,” p. 22.
190. Aluf Benn, “Chemical Weapons Convention: Israel’s Decision Time., p. 23;.
191. Gerald Steinberg, “Israeli Policy on the CWC,” p. 31.
192. Aluf Benn, “A Difficult Choice: The Chemical Weapons Convention”; see also Benn, “Chemical Weapons Convention: Israel’s Decision Time,” p. 23.
193. Aluf Benn, “A Difficult Choice: The Chemical Weapons Convention.”.
194. Aluf Benn, “A Difficult Choice: The Chemical Weapons Convention.
195. Aluf Benn, “A Difficult Choice: The Chemical Weapons Convention.
196. Aluf Benn, “A Difficult Choice: The Chemical Weapons Convention. Benn summarizes the current view in the Israeli defense establishment as follows: “As long as our neighbors see their CW as their deterrent against us, there is no point in talking about us joining the CWC.”.
197. Aluf Benn, “Israel Reviews Decision Not to Sign BW Pact.”.
198. Jean Pascal Zanders, “Assessing the Risk of Chemical and Biological Weapons Proliferation to Terrorists,” Nonproliferation Review 6 (Fall 1999) p. 19;.
199. Allan Cowell, “The Daring Attack that Blew Up in Israel’s Face,” New York Times, October 15,1997, p. A8.
200. Avner Cohen, “Nuclear Arms in Crisis Under Secrecy: Israel and the Lessons of the 1967 and 1973 Wars,” in Lavoy et al., Planning the Unthinkable, pp. 104-24.
201. Aluf Benn, “A Difficult Choice: The Chemical Weapons Convention”;.
202. Aluf Benn, “Chemical Weapons Convention: Israel’s Decision Time,” pp. 22-24.
203. Aluf Benn, “Chemical Weapons Convention: Israel’s Decision Time,” pp. 22-24.
204. Eileen Choffhes, “Germs on the Loose,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 57 (March-April 2001), pp. 57-61.
205. Robert A. Wampler, ed., “The Nixon Administrations’s Decision to End U.S. Biological Warfare Programs,” The September 11 th Sourcebooks, Vol. 1 D: Biowar, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 58, October 25, 2001, .