The Drift of Biological Weapons Policy in the UK 1945-1965

Journal of Strategic Studies

Volumn 20, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 115-145

  Balmer, Brian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0347075052     PISSN: 01402390     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01402399708437701     Document Type: Article

References (195)

1. On ethics and morality of biological warfare see, for example: Nicholas A. Sims, 'Morality and Biological Warfare', Arms Control 8/1 (1987) pp.5-23; John J. Haldane, 'Ethics and Biological Warfare', ibid. (1987) pp.24-35; Valerie Adams 'Chemical and Biological Weapons', in B. Paskins (ed.) Ethics and European Security (London: Croom Helm 1986) pp.102-15; Douglas MacLean, 'Ethics and Biological Defence Research', in The Microbiologist and Biological Defense Research: Ethics. Politics and International Security (Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences, Vol.666. 1992) pp.100-12. A useful overview of the history of biological warfare is: James A. Poupard and Linda A. Miller, 'History of Biological Warfare: Catapaults to Capsomeres', in ibid, pp.9-20. On the biological weapons convention see, for example: Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (MIT Press 1990); Malcom Dando, Biological Warfare in the 21st Century (London: Brassey's 1994). There is some evidence of Japanese use of BW in China in the 1930s and 1940s, See Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45, and the American Cover-Up (London: Routledge 1994). On the cultural fear of disease little scholarly work has been written in relation to biological warfare, but see Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger (New York: Praeger 1966) for a general anthropological account.
2. On ethics and morality of biological warfare see, for example: Nicholas A. Sims, 'Morality and Biological Warfare', Arms Control 8/1 (1987) pp.5-23; John J. Haldane, 'Ethics and Biological Warfare', ibid. (1987) pp.24-35; Valerie Adams 'Chemical and Biological Weapons', in B. Paskins (ed.) Ethics and European Security (London: Croom Helm 1986) pp.102-15; Douglas MacLean, 'Ethics and Biological Defence Research', in The Microbiologist and Biological Defense Research: Ethics. Politics and International Security (Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences, Vol.666. 1992) pp.100-12. A useful overview of the history of biological warfare is: James A. Poupard and Linda A. Miller, 'History of Biological Warfare: Catapaults to Capsomeres', in ibid, pp.9-20. On the biological weapons convention see, for example: Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (MIT Press 1990); Malcom Dando, Biological Warfare in the 21st Century (London: Brassey's 1994). There is some evidence of Japanese use of BW in China in the 1930s and 1940s, See Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45, and the American Cover-Up (London: Routledge 1994). On the cultural fear of disease little scholarly work has been written in relation to biological warfare, but see Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger (New York: Praeger 1966) for a general anthropological account.
3. On ethics and morality of biological warfare see, for example: Nicholas A. Sims, 'Morality and Biological Warfare', Arms Control 8/1 (1987) pp.5-23; John J. Haldane, 'Ethics and Biological Warfare', ibid. (1987) pp.24-35; Valerie Adams 'Chemical and Biological Weapons', in B. Paskins (ed.) Ethics and European Security (London: Croom Helm 1986) pp.102-15; Douglas MacLean, 'Ethics and Biological Defence Research', in The Microbiologist and Biological Defense Research: Ethics. Politics and International Security (Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences, Vol.666. 1992) pp.100-12. A useful overview of the history of biological warfare is: James A. Poupard and Linda A. Miller, 'History of Biological Warfare: Catapaults to Capsomeres', in ibid, pp.9-20. On the biological weapons convention see, for example: Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (MIT Press 1990); Malcom Dando, Biological Warfare in the 21st Century (London: Brassey's 1994). There is some evidence of Japanese use of BW in China in the 1930s and 1940s, See Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45, and the American Cover-Up (London: Routledge 1994). On the cultural fear of disease little scholarly work has been written in relation to biological warfare, but see Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger (New York: Praeger 1966) for a general anthropological account.
4. On ethics and morality of biological warfare see, for example: Nicholas A. Sims, 'Morality and Biological Warfare', Arms Control 8/1 (1987) pp.5-23; John J. Haldane, 'Ethics and Biological Warfare', ibid. (1987) pp.24-35; Valerie Adams 'Chemical and Biological Weapons', in B. Paskins (ed.) Ethics and European Security (London: Croom Helm 1986) pp.102-15; Douglas MacLean, 'Ethics and Biological Defence Research', in The Microbiologist and Biological Defense Research: Ethics. Politics and International Security (Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences, Vol.666. 1992) pp.100-12. A useful overview of the history of biological warfare is: James A. Poupard and Linda A. Miller, 'History of Biological Warfare: Catapaults to Capsomeres', in ibid, pp.9-20. On the biological weapons convention see, for example: Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (MIT Press 1990); Malcom Dando, Biological Warfare in the 21st Century (London: Brassey's 1994). There is some evidence of Japanese use of BW in China in the 1930s and 1940s, See Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45, and the American Cover-Up (London: Routledge 1994). On the cultural fear of disease little scholarly work has been written in relation to biological warfare, but see Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger (New York: Praeger 1966) for a general anthropological account.
5. On ethics and morality of biological warfare see, for example: Nicholas A. Sims, 'Morality and Biological Warfare', Arms Control 8/1 (1987) pp.5-23; John J. Haldane, 'Ethics and Biological Warfare', ibid. (1987) pp.24-35; Valerie Adams 'Chemical and Biological Weapons', in B. Paskins (ed.) Ethics and European Security (London: Croom Helm 1986) pp.102-15; Douglas MacLean, 'Ethics and Biological Defence Research', in The Microbiologist and Biological Defense Research: Ethics. Politics and International Security (Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences, Vol.666. 1992) pp.100-12. A useful overview of the history of biological warfare is: James A. Poupard and Linda A. Miller, 'History of Biological Warfare: Catapaults to Capsomeres', in ibid, pp.9-20. On the biological weapons convention see, for example: Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (MIT Press 1990); Malcom Dando, Biological Warfare in the 21st Century (London: Brassey's 1994). There is some evidence of Japanese use of BW in China in the 1930s and 1940s, See Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45, and the American Cover-Up (London: Routledge 1994). On the cultural fear of disease little scholarly work has been written in relation to biological warfare, but see Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger (New York: Praeger 1966) for a general anthropological account.
6. On ethics and morality of biological warfare see, for example: Nicholas A. Sims, 'Morality and Biological Warfare', Arms Control 8/1 (1987) pp.5-23; John J. Haldane, 'Ethics and Biological Warfare', ibid. (1987) pp.24-35; Valerie Adams 'Chemical and Biological Weapons', in B. Paskins (ed.) Ethics and European Security (London: Croom Helm 1986) pp.102-15; Douglas MacLean, 'Ethics and Biological Defence Research', in The Microbiologist and Biological Defense Research: Ethics. Politics and International Security (Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences, Vol.666. 1992) pp.100-12. A useful overview of the history of biological warfare is: James A. Poupard and Linda A. Miller, 'History of Biological Warfare: Catapaults to Capsomeres', in ibid, pp.9-20. On the biological weapons convention see, for example: Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (MIT Press 1990); Malcom Dando, Biological Warfare in the 21st Century (London: Brassey's 1994). There is some evidence of Japanese use of BW in China in the 1930s and 1940s, See Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45, and the American Cover-Up (London: Routledge 1994). On the cultural fear of disease little scholarly work has been written in relation to biological warfare, but see Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger (New York: Praeger 1966) for a general anthropological account.
7. On ethics and morality of biological warfare see, for example: Nicholas A. Sims, 'Morality and Biological Warfare', Arms Control 8/1 (1987) pp.5-23; John J. Haldane, 'Ethics and Biological Warfare', ibid. (1987) pp.24-35; Valerie Adams 'Chemical and Biological Weapons', in B. Paskins (ed.) Ethics and European Security (London: Croom Helm 1986) pp.102-15; Douglas MacLean, 'Ethics and Biological Defence Research', in The Microbiologist and Biological Defense Research: Ethics. Politics and International Security (Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences, Vol.666. 1992) pp.100-12. A useful overview of the history of biological warfare is: James A. Poupard and Linda A. Miller, 'History of Biological Warfare: Catapaults to Capsomeres', in ibid, pp.9-20. On the biological weapons convention see, for example: Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (MIT Press 1990); Malcom Dando, Biological Warfare in the 21st Century (London: Brassey's 1994). There is some evidence of Japanese use of BW in China in the 1930s and 1940s, See Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45, and the American Cover-Up (London: Routledge 1994). On the cultural fear of disease little scholarly work has been written in relation to biological warfare, but see Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger (New York: Praeger 1966) for a general anthropological account.
8. On ethics and morality of biological warfare see, for example: Nicholas A. Sims, 'Morality and Biological Warfare', Arms Control 8/1 (1987) pp.5-23; John J. Haldane, 'Ethics and Biological Warfare', ibid. (1987) pp.24-35; Valerie Adams 'Chemical and Biological Weapons', in B. Paskins (ed.) Ethics and European Security (London: Croom Helm 1986) pp.102-15; Douglas MacLean, 'Ethics and Biological Defence Research', in The Microbiologist and Biological Defense Research: Ethics. Politics and International Security (Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences, Vol.666. 1992) pp.100-12. A useful overview of the history of biological warfare is: James A. Poupard and Linda A. Miller, 'History of Biological Warfare: Catapaults to Capsomeres', in ibid, pp.9-20. On the biological weapons convention see, for example: Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (MIT Press 1990); Malcom Dando, Biological Warfare in the 21st Century (London: Brassey's 1994). There is some evidence of Japanese use of BW in China in the 1930s and 1940s, See Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45, and the American Cover-Up (London: Routledge 1994). On the cultural fear of disease little scholarly work has been written in relation to biological warfare, but see Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger (New York: Praeger 1966) for a general anthropological account.
9. On ethics and morality of biological warfare see, for example: Nicholas A. Sims, 'Morality and Biological Warfare', Arms Control 8/1 (1987) pp.5-23; John J. Haldane, 'Ethics and Biological Warfare', ibid. (1987) pp.24-35; Valerie Adams 'Chemical and Biological Weapons', in B. Paskins (ed.) Ethics and European Security (London: Croom Helm 1986) pp.102-15; Douglas MacLean, 'Ethics and Biological Defence Research', in The Microbiologist and Biological Defense Research: Ethics. Politics and International Security (Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences, Vol.666. 1992) pp.100-12. A useful overview of the history of biological warfare is: James A. Poupard and Linda A. Miller, 'History of Biological Warfare: Catapaults to Capsomeres', in ibid, pp.9-20. On the biological weapons convention see, for example: Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (MIT Press 1990); Malcom Dando, Biological Warfare in the 21st Century (London: Brassey's 1994). There is some evidence of Japanese use of BW in China in the 1930s and 1940s, See Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45, and the American Cover-Up (London: Routledge 1994). On the cultural fear of disease little scholarly work has been written in relation to biological warfare, but see Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger (New York: Praeger 1966) for a general anthropological account.
10. Gradon B. Carter and Graham S. Pearson, 'Past British Chemical Warfare Capabilities', RUSI Journal 141/1 (Feb. 1996) pp.59-68.
11. The influence of changes in policy on the details of the BW research programme, whilst important, is not the focus of attention within this context. This account is drawn almost entirely from documents released into the public domain at the Public Records Office, London. Many key documents have not been released and the account inevitably reflects the nature of the evidence - minutes, notes and memoranda - which can hardly be taken to be verbatim or even contextualised accounts of events. It is nonetheless the best (or only) available source material and there is enough to present a coherent interpretation, if only of the 'institutional memory' of events. As to the value of the account, I would concur with Berridge in her history of recent AIDS policy when she writes that 'contemporary history... has its own implications, both in structuring further interpretations, and in creating and presenting documentation on which future workers will base interpretation'. Virginia Berridge, AIDS in the UK: The Making of Policy, 1981-1994 (Oxford: OUP 1996) p.3. See also Ronald. E. Doel, 'Scientists as Policymakers, Advisors, and Intelligence Agents: Linking Contemporary Diplomatic History with the History of Contemporary Science', in Thomas Söderqvist (ed.) The Historiography of Contemporary Science and Technology (Amsterdam: Harwood 1997) pp.215-44.
12. The influence of changes in policy on the details of the BW research programme, whilst important, is not the focus of attention within this context. This account is drawn almost entirely from documents released into the public domain at the Public Records Office, London. Many key documents have not been released and the account inevitably reflects the nature of the evidence - minutes, notes and memoranda - which can hardly be taken to be verbatim or even contextualised accounts of events. It is nonetheless the best (or only) available source material and there is enough to present a coherent interpretation, if only of the 'institutional memory' of events. As to the value of the account, I would concur with Berridge in her history of recent AIDS policy when she writes that 'contemporary history... has its own implications, both in structuring further interpretations, and in creating and presenting documentation on which future workers will base interpretation'. Virginia Berridge, AIDS in the UK: The Making of Policy, 1981-1994 (Oxford: OUP 1996) p.3. See also Ronald. E. Doel, 'Scientists as Policymakers, Advisors, and Intelligence Agents: Linking Contemporary Diplomatic History with the History of Contemporary Science', in Thomas Söderqvist (ed.) The Historiography of Contemporary Science and Technology (Amsterdam: Harwood 1997) pp.215-44.
13. Research on chemical warfare had taken place at the same site since 1916.
14. PRO, WO188/653. BW(40)2. War Cabinet BW Committee. Memo on the Present Situation Regarding Bacterial Warfare. To: National Research Council Canada. From: P.O. Banting, Associate Committee on Medical Research (2 Jan. 1940).
15. PRO, DEFE 10/26. DRP(50)53. DRPC. BW Policy. Note by the Chairman, BW Sub-committee (11 May 1950).
16. Gradon B. Carter, 'Biological Warfare and Biological Defence in the United Kingdom 1940-1979', RUSI Journal 137/6 (Dec 1992) pp.67-74; idem, Porton Down: 75 Years of Chemical and Biological Research (London: HMSO 1992); Robert Harris and Jeremy Paxman, A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret Story of Chemical and Biological Warfare (London: Chatto & Windus/NY: Hill & Wang 1982).
17. Gradon B. Carter, 'Biological Warfare and Biological Defence in the United Kingdom 1940-1979', RUSI Journal 137/6 (Dec 1992) pp.67-74; idem, Porton Down: 75 Years of Chemical and Biological Research (London: HMSO 1992); Robert Harris and Jeremy Paxman, A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret Story of Chemical and Biological Warfare (London: Chatto & Windus/NY: Hill & Wang 1982).
18. Gradon B. Carter, 'Biological Warfare and Biological Defence in the United Kingdom 1940-1979', RUSI Journal 137/6 (Dec 1992) pp.67-74; idem, Porton Down: 75 Years of Chemical and Biological Research (London: HMSO 1992); Robert Harris and Jeremy Paxman, A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret Story of Chemical and Biological Warfare (London: Chatto & Windus/NY: Hill & Wang 1982).
19. Tri-partite collaboration between the U., US and Canada is discussed in Gradon Carter and Graham S. Pearson, 'North Atlantic Chemical and Biological Research Collaboration: 1916-1995', Journal of Strategic Studies 19/1 (March 1996) pp.74-103.
20. PRO, DEFE 10/26. DRP(50)53. DRPC. BW Policy. Note by the Chairman, BW Sub-Committee (11 May 1950). Latter quote citing directly from DO (45) 7th Meeting, Minute 5.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid. See below for discussion of the various committees involved in the governance of BW.
23. See Richard Falk, 'Inhibiting Reliance on Biological Weaponry: The Role and Relevance of International Law', in Wright (note 1) pp.240-66; Dando (note 1); Rodney J. McElroy, 'The Geneva Protocol of 1925', in M. Krepon and D. Caldwell (eds) The Politics of Arms Control Treaty Ratification (NY: St Martin's Press 1991) pp.125-66.
24. See Richard Falk, 'Inhibiting Reliance on Biological Weaponry: The Role and Relevance of International Law', in Wright (note 1) pp.240-66; Dando (note 1); Rodney J. McElroy, 'The Geneva Protocol of 1925', in M. Krepon and D. Caldwell (eds) The Politics of Arms Control Treaty Ratification (NY: St Martin's Press 1991) pp.125-66.
25. PRO, WO195/9087. AC9091/BRB1, BRAB Constitution and Terms of Reference (11 July 1946).
26. The SAC presided over at least four committees besides BRAB, including (in 1959) Boards for advising on chemical defence, guided weapons, radar and signals, weapons and explosives and agricultural defence.
27. PRO, WO188/667. BW(47)32. Chiefs of Staff Committee, Biological Warfare Sub-Committee, Division of Responsibilities (3 Nov. 1947). See also Franklyn A. Johnson, Defence By Ministry (London: Duckworth 1980) for a more general account of the organisation of Government defence.
28. Ibid. The ISSBW pre-dates the formation of the DRPC. It was re-constituted as a sub-committee of the DRPC in April 1947 with the terms of reference described here. See PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)3rd Meeting (30 April 1947).
29. Ibid. The ISSBW pre-dates the formation of the DRPC. It was re-constituted as a sub- committee of the DRPC in April 1947 with the terms of reference described here. See PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)3rd Meeting (30 April 1947).
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. The boundary between science and policy is never quite so fixed as such crude divisions would imply. This was certainly the case for the various committees discussed here although this is not the primary focus of this paper. For a general discussion of this theme see Sheila Jasanoff, 'Contested Boundaries in Policy-Relevant Science', Social Studies of Science 17 (1987) pp.195-230; also John Krige 'Scientists as Policymakers: British Physicists 'Advice' to Their Government on Membership of CERN (1951-1952)' in Tore Frängsmyr (ed.) Solomon 's House Revisited: The Organization and Institutionalization of Science (Canton MA: Science History Publications USA 1990) pp.270-91.
33. The boundary between science and policy is never quite so fixed as such crude divisions would imply. This was certainly the case for the various committees discussed here although this is not the primary focus of this paper. For a general discussion of this theme see Sheila Jasanoff, 'Contested Boundaries in Policy-Relevant Science', Social Studies of Science 17 (1987) pp.195-230; also John Krige 'Scientists as Policymakers: British Physicists 'Advice' to Their Government on Membership of CERN (1951-1952)' in Tore Frängsmyr (ed.) Solomon 's House Revisited: The Organization and Institutionalization of Science (Canton MA: Science History Publications USA 1990) pp.270-91.
34. PRO, DEFE 10/19. DRPC. Final Version of Paper on Future of Defence Research Policy. 30 July 1947.
35. PRO, DEFE 10/18. DRP (47) 53. DRPC. Future Defence Policy. 1 May 1947.
36. Ibid.
37. See, for example: PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)1 (final). ISSBW. BW Information For Service Personnel (12 Feb. 1947); PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)3 (final revised). ISSBW. Potentialities of Biological Warfare (12 Feb. 1947); PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)8. ISSBW. Shortage of Scientitic Staff for Research in Biological Warfare (30 Jan. 1947); PRO, WO 188/662. BW(48)9(0). BW Sub-Committee Report to Chiefs of Staff on Attitude to be Adopted by representatives on the Atomic Energy Commission (10 May 1948).
38. See, for example: PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)1 (final). ISSBW. BW Information For Service Personnel (12 Feb. 1947); PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)3 (final revised). ISSBW. Potentialities of Biological Warfare (12 Feb. 1947); PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)8. ISSBW. Shortage of Scientitic Staff for Research in Biological Warfare (30 Jan. 1947); PRO, WO 188/662. BW(48)9(0). BW Sub-Committee Report to Chiefs of Staff on Attitude to be Adopted by representatives on the Atomic Energy Commission (10 May 1948).
39. See, for example: PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)1 (final). ISSBW. BW Information For Service Personnel (12 Feb. 1947); PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)3 (final revised). ISSBW. Potentialities of Biological Warfare (12 Feb. 1947); PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)8. ISSBW. Shortage of Scientitic Staff for Research in Biological Warfare (30 Jan. 1947); PRO, WO 188/662. BW(48)9(0). BW Sub-Committee Report to Chiefs of Staff on Attitude to be Adopted by representatives on the Atomic Energy Commission (10 May 1948).
40. PRO, WO 188/660. BW(47)8. ISSBW. Shortage of Scientific Staff for Research in BW (30 Jan. 1947).
41. PRO, WO 188/660. Annex to BW(47)14. 1947 Statement by BRAB. Air Staff Requirement. Anti-personnel bomb for strategic use (24 April 1947). The causative agents of anthrax, brucellosis and botulism were considered for such a weapon by BRAB. More research was judged to be necessary in each case.
42. PRO, DEFE 10/19. DRPC. Final Version of Paper on Future of Defence Research Policy. 30 July 1947.
43. See Carter (note 7); PRO, WO 195/11643. AC11647/BRB91. BRAB. Report by the Chairman on the Work of the Board during 1951 (10 Nov. 1951).
44. Carter (note 7); Harris and Paxman (note 7).
45. Ibid
46. PRO, DEFE 10/25. DRPC (49) 134. Plant for Experiments in the Bulk Production of BW Agents. Report by the Biological Warfare Sub-Committee (15 Nov. 1949); PRO, WO188/668 Amendments to AC10522/BRB70. Report on Plant for Experimentation on Bulk Production of Bacteria (28 Sept. 1949); PRO, WO188/668. AC11260/BRBM19, BRAB 19th Meeting (21 Dec. 1950).
47. PRO, DEFE 10/25. DRPC (49) 134. Plant for Experiments in the Bulk Production of BW Agents. Report by the Biological Warfare Sub-Committee (15 Nov. 1949); PRO, WO188/668 Amendments to AC10522/BRB70. Report on Plant for Experimentation on Bulk Production of Bacteria (28 Sept. 1949); PRO, WO188/668. AC11260/BRBM19, BRAB 19th Meeting (21 Dec. 1950).
48. PRO, DEFE 10/25. DRPC (49) 134. Plant for Experiments in the Bulk Production of BW Agents. Report by the Biological Warfare Sub-Committee (15 Nov. 1949); PRO, WO188/668 Amendments to AC10522/BRB70. Report on Plant for Experimentation on Bulk Production of Bacteria (28 Sept. 1949); PRO, WO188/668. AC11260/BRBM19, BRAB 19th Meeting (21 Dec. 1950).
49. PRO, WO188/668. AC10785/BRB79, Experimental Plant No.2. (24 Feb. 1950).
50. PRO, DEFE 10/26. DRP(50)53. DRPC. BW Policy. Note by the Chairman, BW Sub-Committee (11 May 1950).
51. PRO, WO188/668. AC10930/BRBM17, BRAB 17th Meeting (20 April 1950). Financial priorities fell outside of the ambit of BRAB, so it is likely that Crawford would not have consulted with them at all had economics been the only consideration.
52. Margaret Gowing, Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy 1945-52. Volume 1 (London: Macmillan 1974).
53. See Carter and Pearson (note 8).
54. PRO, WO188/668. AC10930/BRBM17, BRAB 17th Meeting (20 April 1950).
55. Ibid.
56. The argument was further strengthened by mentioning research cuts in the chemical weapons field prior to World War II.
57. PRO, WO188/668. AC10911/BRB83, Report on BW Policy (4 May 1950), p.1.
58. PRO, DEFE 10/26. DRP(50)53. DRPC. BW Policy. Note by the Chairman, BW Sub-committee (11 May 1950).
59. Ibid.
60. For a more detailed discussion of the uses of uncertainty in weapons research policy, see Donald Mackenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (London: MIT Press 1993) Ch.7.
61. PRO, DEFE 10/26. DRP(50)53. DRPC. BW Policy. Note by the Chairman, BW Sub-Committee (11 May 1950).
62. Ibid.
63. Ibid.
64. Ibid.
65. Ibid.
66. PRO, WO188/668. AC11260/BRBM19, BRAB 19th Meeting (21 Dec. 1950).
67. Carter and Pearson (note 8) p.85.
68. Ibid. p.86.
69. PRO, WO188/668. AC 11817/BRBM24, BRAB 24th Meeting (19 March 1952).
70. PRO, WO188/668. AC11872/BRBM25, BRAB 25th Meeting (14 May 1952).
71. PRO, WO188/668. AC11950/BRBM26, BRAB 26th Meeting (12 July 1952).
72. PRO WO188/668. AC11872/BRBM25, BRAB 25th Meeting (25 April 1952).
73. Ibid.
74. PRO, WO188/668. AC11950/BRBM26, BRAB 26th Meeting (12 July 1952).
75. Ibid.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid.
78. By which time the first British atomic bomb had been tested (Oct. 1952) although this is not mentioned explicitly in any open discussions on BW.
79. PRO, WO188/668. AC12127/BRBM27, BRAB 27th Meeting (6 Dec. 1952).
80. The Principal Director of Scientific Research was the channel for advising BRAB on official policy (PRO, WO188/668. AC12127/BRBM27, ibid.).
81. PRO, WO188/668. AC12127/BRBM27, BRAB 27th Meeting (6 Dec. 1952). As Carter and Pearson (note 8) p.102 mention, the term 'long range' is ambiguous in this context but, as will become apparent below, is almost certainly referring to long-term research rather then long range (strategic, off-target) attacks by BW weapons.
82. PRO, WO188/668. AC12165/BRB106, Directive on Biological Warfare Policy (4 Feb. 1953).
83. PRO, WO188/668. AC12227/BRBM27. BRAB 28th Meeting (10 Feb. 1953).
84. PRO, WO188/668. AC12552/BRB120, Directive By The Minister of Supply, On Biological Warfare Research and Development (19 Nov. 1953).
85. PRO, WO188/668. AC12595/BRBM30. BRAB 30th Meeting (6 Nov. 1953).
86. As note 66.
87. PRO, DEFE 10/33. DRPC. Review of Defence R&D (10 March 1954). The review was largely dismissed by the Chiefs of Staff for reasons which have little to do with chemical and biological warfare and which are more concerned with the 'long haul' - a long term strategy which replaced the earlier concept of preparedness by 1957 - and the arrival of the hydrogen bomb. See PRO, AVIA 54/1749. MoD. DRPC Review (1954).
88. PRO, DEFE 10/33. DRPC. Review of Defence R&D (10 March 1954). The review was largely dismissed by the Chiefs of Staff for reasons which have little to do with chemical and biological warfare and which are more concerned with the 'long haul' - a long term strategy which replaced the earlier concept of preparedness by 1957 - and the arrival of the hydrogen bomb. See PRO, AVIA 54/1749. MoD. DRPC Review (1954).
89. PRO, DEFE 10/33. DRPC. Review of Defence R&D (10 March 1954).
90. Ibid.
91. Ibid.
92. Ibid.
93. PRO, DEFE 10/33. DRPC. Review of Defence R&D. Report by Programmes Sub-committee (28 Sept. 1954)
94. Ibid. Emphasis added. This policy statement clarifies the previous use of the term 'long range'.
95. PRO, DEFE 10/33. DRP/p.(54)30. Review of Defence R&D Programmes - Chemical and Biological Warfare. Note by the Ministry of Supply. (8 Oct. 1954). It is not noted who in the Ministry was responsible for suggesting the changes. BRAB may well have been consulted but there is no record of this in the minutes which are in the public domain.
96. Ibid.
97. As note 74.
98. Ibid.
99. Ibid.
100. PRO, DEFE 10/33. DRP/p(54)30. Review of Defence R&D Programmes - Chemical and Biological Warfare. Note by the Ministry of Supply. (8 Oct. 1954).
101. This is an instance of 'boundary work', the rhetorical struggle to define boundaries which later appear fixed by scientific authority. This authority can then be exploited by different groups to achieve their goals and interests. See Thomas F. Gieryn, 'Boundary Work and the Demarcation of Science from Non-Science: Strains and Interests in the Professional Ideologies of Scientists', American Sociological Review 48 (1983) pp.781-95; T. Gieryn, 'Boundaries of Science' in S. Jasanoff et al. (eds) Handbook of Science and Technology Studies, (London: Sage 1995) pp.393-443; Jasanoff (note 19).
102. This is an instance of 'boundary work', the rhetorical struggle to define boundaries which later appear fixed by scientific authority. This authority can then be exploited by different groups to achieve their goals and interests. See Thomas F. Gieryn, 'Boundary Work and the Demarcation of Science from Non-Science: Strains and Interests in the Professional Ideologies of Scientists', American Sociological Review 48 (1983) pp.781-95; T. Gieryn, 'Boundaries of Science' in S. Jasanoff et al. (eds) Handbook of Science and Technology Studies, (London: Sage 1995) pp.393-443; Jasanoff (note 19).
103. PRO, DEFE 10/33. DRP/p(54)30. Review of Defence R&D Programmes - Chemical and Biological Warfare. Note by the Ministry of Supply (8 Oct. 1954).
104. PRO, DEFE 10/33. DRP/P(54)40. DRPC. Report by the Committee on the Review of the R&D Programmes (18 November 1954).
105. PRO, DEFE 10/39. DRP/P(54)26,28,29,30,31. DRPC Meeting(12 Oct. 1954).
106. PRO, DEFE 10/33. DRP/p(54)30. Review of Defence R&D Programmes - Chemical and Biological Warfare. Note by the Ministry of Supply (8 Oct. 1954). Annex E. It is stated that these amendments had resulted from consultation with the Chief Scientist at the Ministry of Supply and the Controller of Munitions, reflecting discussions from a 12 Oct. DRPC meeting.
107. As note 74.
108. PRO, DEFE 10/39. DRP/P(54)26,28,29,30,31. DRPC Meeting(12 Oct. 1954).
109. Ibid.
110. PRO, DEFE 10/33. DRP/P(54)40. DRPC. Report by the Committee on the Review of the R&D Programmes (18 Nov. 1954).
111. Ibid.
112. PRO, DEFE 10/281. DRPS/P(56)49. Defence Research Policy Staff. Offensive Biological Weapons. Note by DRPS (Air). (24 Oct. 1956).
113. Ibid.
114. Michael Dockrill, British Defence Since 1945 (Oxford: Blackwell 1988) pp.41-64.
115. In 1955 Eden became the new Prime Minister and attempted to introduce further defence cuts. A year later the Suez crisis dominated military considerations. See Dockrill (note 94) pp.56-64.
116. PRO, DEFE 10/34. DRP/P(55)63. DRPC. Steps Necessary to Keep the Ministry of Supply Defence R&D Programme Within a Ceiling of £170m. Note by the Chairman (5 Nov. 1955).
117. Ibid.
118. The DRP Staff formed the office of the DRPC.
119. As note 92.
120. PRO, DEFE 10/34. DRP/P(55)50 (Final). DRPC. Review of Defence Research and Development (23 Jan. 1956).
121. PRO, WO195/15491. Appendix to SAC566. Technical Supplement to the Report tor the Year 1962.
122. PRO CAB 131/17, DC(56)6. Defence Committee Minutes (10 July 1956). See Graham Pearson, 'Farewell to Arms', Chemistry in Britain 31/10 (Oct. 1995) pp.782-6; Carter and Pearson' (note 2). The decision was, more specifically, to abandon the large scale production of nerve gas and the development of nerve gas weapons and to destroy the residue of the World War II stockpile of other chemical agents and weapons.
123. Carter and Pearson (note 2) p.68.
124. PRO, CAB 131/17, DC(56)6. Defence Committee Minutes (10 July 1956). See also PRO, CAB 131/17. DC(56)13 (Revise). Cabinet Defence Committee. Chemical Warfare Policy. Memorandum by the Minister of Defence (4 July 1956).
125. PRO, WO195/13822. AC13826/BRB145. Report by the Chairman on the work of the Board during the year 1956 (5 Nov. 1956).
126. PRO, DEFE 10/281. DRPS/M(56)28. Defence Research Policy Staff. Meeting (2 Nov. 1956).
127. PRO DEFE 10/282. DRPS/P(57)19. Defence Research Policy Staff. Working Party on BW and CW. Note by the Secretary (6 Feb. 1957). The membership of the committee was: Mr EC Williams (Chairman. Ministry of Defence); Capt. R.I.A. Sarrell, Brig. L.C.C. Harrison Air Commodore J.N. Tomes, Mr W.U. Curtis (all DRPS, Ministry of Defence), Mr J.H.B. Macklen (Ministry of Defence), Mr E.K.G. James (CDEE), Mr J.R. Morton (MRE) and Squadron Leader W.S.O. Randle (Secretary, Ministry of Defence).
128. PRO, WO195/13847. AC13851/M134. SAC 134th Meeting (25 Oct. 1956).
129. PRO DEFE 10/282. DRPS/P(57)59(Draft). Defence Research Policy Staft. Review of Defence Research and Development (31 May 1957). A month beforehand the Sandys White Paper on defence policy had called for increasing reliance on a nuclear deterrent, this preceded a range of severe cuts to the defence budget. See Dockrill (note 94) pp.65-81.
130. The V agents were a range of nerve agents developed as chemical weapons after World War
131. PRO, AIR 8/1936. Brief for the Chief of Air Staff. Biological and Chemical Warfare (22 Oct. 1957).
132. PRO, DEFE 10/283. DRPS/P(58)10. Report on BW & CW (28 Feb. 1958).
133. Ibid.
134. Ibid. The notion that there existed a threat from the widespread dissemination ot biological agents the so-called Large Area Concept, had recently become a dominant theme in BRAB's discussions. The Report by the Chairman of BRAB for 1957, for example, stated that: 'the concept of large area coverage over, say, 200 by 200 miles offers a potent exploitation of the insidious character and low dosage which are peculiar to BW'. PRO, WO195/14164. AC14169/BRB150. BRAB. Report by the Chairman 1957.
135. PRO, DEFE 10/283. DRPS/P(58)10. Report on BW & CW (28 Feb. 1958).
136. Ibid.
137. Ibid.
138. Ibid.
139. Ibid.
140. Ibid.
141. Ibid.
142. PRO, DEFE 41/156. JP(58)65(Final). Chiefs of Staff Committee, Joint Planning Staff. Biological and Chemical Warfare. Report by the Joint Planning Staff (30 July 1958). The report is cited as DRP/P(58)29.
143. Ibid.
144. Ibid.
145. Ibid.
146. Ibid.
147. Ibid.
148. Ibid.
149. Ibid.
150. Ibid.
151. Ibid.
152. Ibid.
153. Ibid.
154. Ibid.
155. Ibid.
156. PRO, DEFE 10/356. DRP/P(59)6. Ministry of Defence. DRPC. Biological and Chemical Warfare. Note by the DRP Staff (28 Jan. 1959).
157. Ibid.
158. Ibid.
159. Ibid.
160. Ibid.
161. PRO, DEFE 10/355. 24159. DRP/M(59)2. DRPC Meeting (10 Feb. 1959).
162. Ibid.
163. PRO, DEFE 10/355. DRPC. Meeting (13 Sept. 1960).
164. Ibid.
165. PRO, WO195/14405. AC14413/BRBM41. BRAB 41st Meeting (18 July 1958); PRO, WO195/14334. AC134342/CDb249 OECM3. Offensive Evaluation Committee 3rd Meeting (17 April 1958); PRO, WO195/14593. PN68. Long Distance Travel of Paniculate Clouds (23 Jan. 1959).
166. PRO, WO195/14405. AC14413/BRBM41. BRAB 41st Meeting (18 July 1958); PRO, WO195/14334. AC134342/CDb249 OECM3. Offensive Evaluation Committee 3rd Meeting (17 April 1958); PRO, WO195/14593. PN68. Long Distance Travel of Paniculate Clouds (23 Jan. 1959).
167. PRO, WO195/14405. AC14413/BRBM41. BRAB 41st Meeting (18 July 1958); PRO, WO195/14334. AC134342/CDb249 OECM3. Offensive Evaluation Committee 3rd Meeting (17 April 1958); PRO, WO195/14593. PN68. Long Distance Travel of Paniculate Clouds (23 Jan. 1959).
168. PRO, DEFE 13/440. Confidential Annex to COS(60) 59th Meeting (27 Sept. 1960).
169. PRO, WO195/15168. SAC243/BRBM49. BRAB 49th Meeting (15 April 1961). PRO, AIR 8/1936. COS.204/15/2/61. United Kingdom BW and CW Weapons Release of Information (20 Feb. 1961).
170. Membership: Sir Harry Melville, Dr F.J. Wilkins, Professor E.R.H. Jones, Professor E.T.C. Spooner, Major-Gen. J.R.C. Hamilton, Professor P.B. Medawar.
171. PRO, WO195/15287. SAC362/M51. BRAB 51st Meeting (6 Dec. 1961).
172. Ibid. Membership: Dr W. Cawood (Chief Scientist, War Office) (Chairman), Sir John Carroll (Deputy Controller, R&D, Admiralty), Mr H Constant (Scientific Adviser. Air Ministry), Mr E.C. Cornford (Chairman D.R.P. Staff, Ministry of Defence), Dr W.B. Littler (Deputy Chief Scientist, War Office), Major-Gen. H.J. Mogg (Director of Combat Development, War Office), Dr R.H. Purcell (Chief Scientific Adviser, Home Office). See PRO, DEFE10/490. 24144. DRP/P(62)33. DRPC. Chemical and Biological Warfare (10 May 1962).
173. PRO, DEFE 10/490. DRP/P(62)33. DRPC. Chemical and Biological Warfare. Note by the Joint Secretaries (10 May 1962).
174. Ibid.
175. Ibid.
176. PRO, DEFE 13/440. SZ/1177/62. Chemical and Biological Warfare Policy. Note to the Minister from G. Owen (signed on behalf of CSA) (20 Dec. 1962).
177. Ibid.
178. PRO, AIR 8/1936. Chiefs of Staff Committee. Brief for Vice Chief of the Air Staff. Chemical and Biological Warfare (1 Nov. 1962).
179. PRO, CAB 131/28. D(63)3. Cabinet Defence Committee Meeting (3 May 1963).
180. PRO, DEFE 24/31. d/Ds 6/8. Briefs for New Ministers. Chemical And Biological Warfare (7 Oct. 1964).
181. As note 160.
182. Ibid. It was pointed out to Cabinet by the Minister of Defence that 'we are generally believed in NATO to hold stocks of at least chemical weapons and we have never disclosed formally to NATO that we no such retaliatory capacity or modem defensive equipment'. See PRO, CAB 131/28. D(63)14. Cabinet Defence Committee. Biological and Chemical Warfare. Memo by the Minister of Defence (16 April 1963).
183. Ibid.
184. PRO, DEFE 24/31. d/Ds 6/8. Briefs for New Ministers. Chemical And Biological Warfare (7 Oct. 1964).
185. PRO, DEFE 13/440. Cabinet Defence Committee. Biological and Chemical Warfare Policy (D.(63)14). Brief for the Minister of Defence (1 May 1963).
186. Ibid.
187. PRO, WO195/15751. MRE report No. VT1. Exploratory Ventilation Trial in the London Underground Railways. February 1964; Brian Balmer, 'The Day Germ Warfare Came To Tooting Broadway', The Independent, 28 March 1995, p.21; Andrew Gilligan and Rob Evans, 'City Dwellers Exposed to Biological Warfare Tests', Sunday Telegraph, 2 Feb. 1997, p.7. In all these reports and articles Bacillus subtilis is referred to by its older name Bacillus globigii. Planning for some of the trials pre-dates the Cabinet decision to expand the budget for them, see PRO, WO195/14405. AC14413/BRBM41. BRAB 41st Meeting (18 July 1958).
188. PRO, WO195/15751. MRE report No. VT1. Exploratory Ventilation Trial in the London Underground Railways. February 1964; Brian Balmer, 'The Day Germ Warfare Came To Tooting Broadway', The Independent, 28 March 1995, p.21; Andrew Gilligan and Rob Evans, 'City Dwellers Exposed to Biological Warfare Tests', Sunday Telegraph, 2 Feb. 1997, p.7. In all these reports and articles Bacillus subtilis is referred to by its older name Bacillus globigii. Planning for some of the trials pre-dates the Cabinet decision to expand the budget for them, see PRO, WO195/14405. AC14413/BRBM41. BRAB 41st Meeting (18 July 1958).
189. PRO, WO195/15751. MRE report No. VT1. Exploratory Ventilation Trial in the London Underground Railways. February 1964; Brian Balmer, 'The Day Germ Warfare Came To Tooting Broadway', The Independent, 28 March 1995, p.21; Andrew Gilligan and Rob Evans, 'City Dwellers Exposed to Biological Warfare Tests', Sunday Telegraph, 2 Feb. 1997, p.7. In all these reports and articles Bacillus subtilis is referred to by its older name Bacillus globigii. Planning for some of the trials pre-dates the Cabinet decision to expand the budget for them, see PRO, WO195/14405. AC14413/BRBM41. BRAB 41st Meeting (18 July 1958).
190. PRO, WO195/15751. MRE report No. VT1. Exploratory Ventilation Trial in the London Underground Railways. February 1964; Brian Balmer, 'The Day Germ Warfare Came To Tooting Broadway', The Independent, 28 March 1995, p.21; Andrew Gilligan and Rob Evans, 'City Dwellers Exposed to Biological Warfare Tests', Sunday Telegraph, 2 Feb. 1997, p.7. In all these reports and articles Bacillus subtilis is referred to by its older name Bacillus globigii. Planning for some of the trials pre-dates the Cabinet decision to expand the budget for them, see PRO, WO195/14405. AC14413/BRBM41. BRAB 41st Meeting (18 July 1958).
191. As note 160.
192. Charles E. Lindblom, 'The Science of Muddling Through', Public Administration Review 19 (1959).
193. See Wright (note 1) Chs. 6-8 pp.120-96; Harlee Strauss and Jonathan King, 'The Fallacy of Defensive Biological Weapons Programmes', in Erhard Geissler (ed.). Biological and Toxin Weapons Today (Oxford: OUP 1986) pp.12-20.; Charles Piller and Keith R. Yamamoto, Gene Wars: Military Control over the New Genetic Technology (NY: Morrow 1988).
194. See Wright (note 1) Chs. 6-8 pp.120-96; Harlee Strauss and Jonathan King, 'The Fallacy of Defensive Biological Weapons Programmes', in Erhard Geissler (ed.). Biological and Toxin Weapons Today (Oxford: OUP 1986) pp.12-20.; Charles Piller and Keith R. Yamamoto, Gene Wars: Military Control over the New Genetic Technology (NY: Morrow 1988).
195. The Microbiological Research Department was re-named the Microbiological Research Establishment in 1957.